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Nations 


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LARDNEE'S 


UNIVERSAL  HISTORY 


OF 


ALL  NATIONS, 

SHOWING 

THEIIi    RISE,    PEOGEESS,    DECLINE,    CONTINUANCli 

AND 

PRESENT   CONDITION. 

INCLUDING    THE    AUTHENTIC    ANNALS    OF 

EVERY    RACE    AND    PEOPLE, 

FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME, 

DESCRIBING 

THEIR   PRIMITIVE    CONDITION, 

AND   THEIR   GROWTH   IN    THE    ARTS    OF 

PEACE    AND    WAR. 

FROM   THE   HUT  OF  SAVAGERY  TO  THE 
PALACE  OF  CIVILIZATION. 


NEW  YORK: 
WORLD    MANUFACTURING    CO.,    PUBLISHERS, 

122  Nassau  Street. 


Copyrighted,  1885,  by  Would  Manufactuking  Co. 


SRLP 
URL 


PREFACE. 


The  object  of  the  writer  of  the  present  volume  has  beon 
to  give  a  correct  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  history  of 
the  world,  which  accuracy  of  narration  and  chronology 
would  render  valuable  as  a  book  of  reference,  and  in  whicb 
general  views  and  reflections  would  remove  the  dryness 
inseparable  from  a  mere  enumeration  of  facia  7<)  the 
separate  histories  of  diflferent  countries  it  is  as  a  general 
map  of  the  whole  combined,  representing  in  connection 
what  they  exhibit  isolated,  and  displaying  the  relative  pro- 
portions and  importance  of  the  several  parts.  So  that  the 
attentive  reader  will  find  himself  conversant  and  his  mind 
impressed  with  most  of  the  great  characters  and  events 
which  occur  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

For  the  plan  of  dividing  the  work  into  periods,  the 
author  is  indebted  to  the  celebrated  MuUer,  and  has  adopted 
several  of  the  divisions  employed  by  him  in  his  Universal 
History.  That  work,  with  those  of  Schlosser,  Gibbon, 
Hallam,  and  others,  has  been  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
work,  with  constant  reference  to  contemporary  and  nationsl 
ystories. 


Vl  PREFACE. 

To  prevent  any  misconception,  the  reader  is  requested  to 
bear  in  mind  that  this  is  a  national  and  political  history 
mankind  being  regarded  in  it  as  divided  into  great  societies 
Consequently,  when  religions  are  treated  of,  whether  the 
true  or  the  false,  they  are  regarded  only  in  their  political 
relations  and  their  bearings  on  national  progress  and 
character.  Theological  discussion  would  be  entirely  out 
of  place  in  a  work  of  this  kind. 

There  is  an  Index  at  the  end  of  the  work,  by  consulting 
which,  under  the  head  of  any  country,  the  history  of  that 
country  may  be  read  in  its  historical  and  chronological 
order.  This  will  be  done  by  referring  to  the  pages  under 
its  name.  The  wars  and  political  relations  of  two  countries 
will  be  best  known  by  reading  the  corresponding  parts  ot 
the  history  of  each. 


CONTENTS. 
PART  I. 

ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

CHAP.  I. 

Introduction. 
Of  Man,  15.     Original  Seat  of  Man — Original   State  of  Man,  !•. 
Ethiopians,  17.    Chinese,  18.     India,  22. 

CHAP.  II. 

Ancient  States  of  Central  and   Western  Asia. 
Bactria,  23.     Babylon  and  Assyria,  24.     Egypt,  27.     Phoenicia,  29. 
Philistines,  29.     Arabia — Israelites,  30.     Medes  and  Persians,  38. 

CHAP.  III. 
Greece. 
Early  State  of  Greece,   45.    Dorian  Migration,  49.    Sparta,  60. 
Athens,  51. 

CHAP.  IV. 
Greece  to  her  Subversion  by  the  Macedonians. 
Persian  War,   66.     Peloponnesian   War,    58.     Lacedaemonian  Do- 
minion, 63.     Theban  Dominion,  64.     Philip  of  Macedon,  67. 

CHAP.  V, 

Alexander  and  his  Successors. 
Alexander,  69.     Division  of  Alexander's  Dominions,  70.     Macedon— 
Greece,  74.     Thrace— Bithynia,  75.     Pergamus— Pontus,  76.     Ar- 
meniar-Syria,  79.    Judea,80.    Parthia— Egypt,  81.    Carthage,  82. 

CHAP.  VI. 
Eome  till  the  Punic  Wars. 
Rome  under  Kings,  85.  Tuscans— War  with  Porsenna,  91.  Dicta- 
tor—Secession—Tribunes, 92.  Spiirius  Cassius,  and  the  Agrarian 
Law,  94,  The  Decemvirs  and  the  Twelve  Tables,  97.  Spuriua 
Mffilius,  98.  Wars  anterior  to  the  Gallic  invasion,  101.  Gauls- 
Capture  of  Rome,  102.  Rebuilding  of  the  City— Manlius,  10.3. 
Licinian  Rogations,  104.  Samnite  War— Latin  War,  108.  War 
with  Pyrrhus,  109. 

CHAP.  VIL 
Pome  till  the  Time  of  the  Gracchi. 
First  Punic  War,  110.     Hlyrian  War— Gallic  War,   123.  ^  Second 
Punic  War,  114.     Macedonian  and  Syrian  Wars,  115.     tonquert 

vU 


?1U  CONTENTS. 

ofMacedon — Third  Punic  War,  116.    Achsean  War,  119.    SptuuBk 
Wars,  120. 

CHAP.  VIII. 

Some  till  the  End  of  the  Republic 

The  Gracchi,  121.  Jugurthine  War — Cimbric  War,  125.  State  ot 
Rome — Social  or  Marsian  War,  126.  Mithridatic  and  Civil  Wars, 
127  From  the  death  of  Sulla  to  that  of  Mithridates,  132.  Cati- 
line's Conspiracy — The  Gallic  War  of  Caeear,  134.  Civil  War  of 
Caesar  and  Pompeius,  139.  Events  tiU  the  Death  of  Caesar,  143. 
Civil  War  with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  144.  War  between  Ootavianus 
and  Antonius,  147. 

CHAP.  IX. 

Rome  an  Empire. 

Emperors  of  the  Caesarian  Family,  151.  Emperors  chosen  by  the 
Army,  155.  Flavian  Family,  156.  Good  Emperors,  159.  From 
Commodus  to  Diocletian,  161.  Change  in  the  Form  of  'Govern- 
ment, 168.     Corruption  of  Christianity,  170. 

CHAP.  X. 

Decline  of  the  Empire. 

Successors  of  Constantino,  174.  The  Huns,  179.  Wars  with  the 
Goths,  180.  Genseric  and  Attila,  185.  Fall  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire, 187. 


PART  II. 
THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

CHAP.  L 

Establishment  of  the  Barbarians  in  the  Western  Empire. 

Gotho-Germans,  192.  East-Goths  in  Italy,  192.  Lombards  in  Italy 
— Burgundians,  194.  Allemanni,  195.  Franks,  196.  Anglo- 
Saxons,  199.  West-Goths  in  Spain,  200.  Byzantine  Empire,  201. 
Persia,  206. 

CHAP.  IL 

TTie  Times  of  Mohammed  and  the  Firut  Khalifa, 

Mohammed,  208.  First  Khalifs,  214.  Conquestof  Syria,  215.  Con- 
quest of  Persia — Conquest  of  Egypt,  219.  Invasion  of  Africa.  220. 
Ommiyades — Conquest  of  Africa — Conquest  of  Spain,  221.  Inva- 
sion of  France  by  the  Arabs,  222.  France — Lombards,  225.  Con- 
stantinople, 226.     Germany — England,  227. 

CHAP.  IIL 
The  Times  of  Charlemagne  and  Haroon^er-rasheed, 
Italy,  227.    Empire   of  Charlemagne,  231.     Feudal   System,  232. 
England — Constantinople,  234.    Abbaaide  Khalifs,  237. 


CUNITENTS-  is 

CHAP.  IV. 

Dissolution  of  the  Great  Empires  of  the  East  and  West. 

Empire  of  Charlemagne,  240.  Hungarians,  243.  Northmen,  244. 
France — Germany — House  of  Saxony,  246.  Italy,  250.  England, 
251.  Russia,  252.  Constantinople,  255.  Decline  of  the  Arabian 
Empire — Africa,  256.  Decline  of  the  Arabian  Empire — Asia,  256. 
Causes  of  the  Decline  of  the  Power  of  the  KhaJifs,  261.  Qaa- 
nevides,  262.     Spain,  263. 

CHAP.  V. 

Increase  of  the  Papal  Power. 

Italy — Normans,  264.  Italy — Popes,  269.  Italy — Lombard  Cities, 
274.  Germany — House  of  Franconia — France,  275.  England,  276. 
Spain — Constantinople — Seljookians,  280.     First  Crusade,  285. 

CHAP.  VI. 

7%e  Papal  Power  at  its  Greatest  Height. 

Italy — Popes,  287.  Italy — Lombard  Cities,  292.  Italy — Naples 
and  Sicily — Germany — Swabian  Line,  293.  France,  298.  En- 
gland— Plantagenets,  299.  Ireland— Spain,  304.  Portugal — Al- 
mohadcs,  305.  Persia — Saladin,  306.  Mamelukes — Constantino- 
ple, 309.  Crusades,  310.  Mongols— Chingis  Khan,  315.  End  of 
the  Khalifat  at  Bagdad,  316. 

CHAP.  VIL 
Decline  of  the  Papal  Power,  and  Formation  of  Great  Monarchies. 
Italy— Popes,  317.  Italy— Republics,  323.  Italy— Naples  and  Sicily, 
328.  Germany,  330.  Switzerland— France,  334.  England— Plan- 
tagenets, 342.  Wars  between  France  and  England,  349.  Scotland, 
355.  Scandinavia,  360.  Poland,  361.  Hungary— Ottomans,  362. 
Tatars— Timoor,  367.  Spain,  371.  Portugal,  372.  Discovery  of 
America,  373. 


PART  III. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

CHAP.  L 

View  of  the  State  of  Europe. 
England,  379.     France-Germany— Russia,  Poland,  Scandinariar— 
Switzerland  and  Savoy,  380.     Italy,  383.     League  of  Cambray- 
Spain  and  Portugal,  384.     Turkey,  385.     Persia,  386. 

CHAP.  II. 

Times  of  Charles  V. 

Accession  of  Charles  V.,  389.     Reformation,  390.    Wars  of  Charles 

V.  and  Francrs  I.,  391.     Affairs  of  Germany,  396.     Renewed  War 

with  France,  397.    Affairs  of  Germany,  398.    England,  402.    Spam 

And  Portugal— Italy,  403.     Denmark  and  Sweden— Turkey,  407. 

2 


S  CONTENTS- 

CHAP.  III. 
Times  of  Philip  II. 

State  of  Europe  at  Philip's  Accession,  408.  France,  409.  Nether- 
lands, 416.  England,  422.  Portugal,  426.  Germany — Poland, 
427.     Italy,  428.     Turkey,  431, 

CHAP.  IV. 

Times  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 

Germany,  432.  France,  429,  Spain,  443.  Portugal — Italy — Eng- 
land—The Civil  War,  444,  Holland,  448.  Russia— Turkey  and 
Persia,  449. 

CHAP.  V, 

Times  of  Louis  XIV. 

France  to  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  450.  England  to  the  Restora- 
tion— Wars  tiU  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen,  433,  England  to  the 
Revolution,  459.  Wars  to  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  460.  England — 
Spanish  Succession,  462,  North  of  Europe — Peter  the  Great — 
Charles  XII.,  471.     England,  472. 

CHAP.  VI, 

Period  of  Comparative  Repose. 

England — Quadruple  Alliance,  475.  Russia — Turkish  Wars,  477. 
Persia — Nadir  Shah,  478. 

CHAP.  VII, 
Times  of  Frederic  II. 

Silesian  Wars,  481.  England,  487,  Russia — Seven  Years'  War,  488, 
Suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  493.  First  Partition  of  Poland,  494. 
Turkish  War — American  Revolutionary  War,  495.  India — Persia, 
603, 

CHAP.  VIII. 

Times  of  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire. 

Stdte  of  Europe,  506.  French  Revolution,  511,  Europe  to  the  Peace 
of  Campo  Formio,  515.  Affairs  to  the  Assumption  of  the  chief 
power  by  Bonaparte,  516.  Affairs  till  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  518. 
Affairs  of  Europe  to  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  521.  Affairs  to  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna,  522.  Progress  of  the  Peninsular  War,  524.  Invasior 
of  Russia,  and  Fall  of  Napoleon,  527, 

CHAP,  IX, 

Times  of  the  Restoration  and  Louis  Philippe 

CHAP.  X. 

Times  of  the  Continental  Revolution. 

CHAP.  XL 
The  Old  World  from  1849  to  1885. 

CHAP.  XII. 

The  New  World  from  1849  to  1885. 


HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD. 


PART  I. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

CHAP  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 


Of  Man. 

There  are  different  races  of  our  species  occupying  the  vari- 
ous portions  of  the  earth,  and  distinguished  from  each  other 
in  corporeal  structure  and  in  mental  development.  These  nu- 
merous varieties  are,  by  the  ablest  investigators,  reduced  to 
three  principal  stems,  viz.  the  Caucasian  or  Europeo-Arabic, 
the  Mongol,  and  the  Negro  or  Ethiopic.  The  first  contains 
the  people  of  Asia  north  and  south  of  the  great  mountain 
range  of  Caucasus  and  its  continuation  to  the  Ganges,  of  Eu- 
rope, and  of  Northern  Africa;  the  second,  the  people  of  East- 
ern Asia  and  of  America ;  the  third,  the  tribes  vsdth  woolly 
hair  and  sable  skin  that  people  the  African  continent.  Yet 
many  tribes  can  with  difficulty  be  brought  under  any  one  of 
these  divisions:  the  endless  variety  of  Nature  is  as  apparent 
in  the  human  race  as  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

Original  Seat  of  Man. 

It  is,  perhaps,  a  useless  inquiry  to  search  after  the  region 
in  which  man  was  first  placed,  the  paradise  of  his  first  days 
of  innocence  and  happiness.  The  only  historic  clew  we  pos- 
sess are  the  names  of  the  four  rivers,  said  in  the  Hebrew  re- 
cords to  have  watered  the  land  in  which  the  progenitors  of 
the  human  race  dwelt  But  as  no  four  rivers  can  be  found 
on  the  present  surface  of  the  earth  agreeing  in  all  points 
with  those  mentioned  by  Moses,  our  safest  course  is  to  con- 
fine ourselves  to  the  inquiry  after  the  region  where  those  who 
escaped  the  great  inundation  which  overwhelmed  the  earth, 
resumed  their  destined  course  of  life  and  occupation. 

The  general  opinion,  founded  on  the  literal  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  has  long  been,  that  at  the  time  of  the  flood  all 


16  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORCD.  PART  I. 

mankind  perished,  save  Noah  and  his  family.  Some,  how- 
ever, contend,  that  the  words  of  the  inspired  writer  are  not 
to  be  taken  so  strictly,  and  that  as  his  information  was  des- 
tined for  a  particular  portion  of  mankind,  it  may  have  been 
only  intended  to  instruct  them  in  tlie  history  of  the  race  to 
which  they  belonged,  while  that  of  other  races  may  have 
been  passed  over  in  silence.  Hence  they  would  infer  that  we 
are  not  precluded  by  the  Mosaic  writings  from  supposing,  that 
at  the  time  of  the  great  inundation  other  portions  of  mankind 
may  have  saved  themselves  in  diiFerent  manners  and  places. 
They  therefore  look  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  earth,  and 
and  three  elevated  rangc-s  m  the  neighborhood  of  the  three 
distinct  stems  into  which  we  find  mankind  divided.  The  lofty 
range  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  east  of  India  has 
been  at  all  times  regarded  as  being,  either  itself  or  the  landa 
south  of  it,  the  original  seat  of  the  Caucasian  race.  Still 
more  east,  beyond  Tibet  and  the  desert  of  Gobi,  rises  another 
range,  regarded  as  the  original  seat  of  the  Mongol  race  which 
dwells  around  it :  and  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  and  their 
branches  are  thought  to  point  out  the  primitive  abodes  of  the 
Negro  race.  America,  it  is  probable,  was  not,  tUl  long  after 
adapted  for  the  abode  of  man. 

These,  however,  are  all  questions  of  curiosity  rather  than 
of  historical  importance.  At  the  dawn  of  all  history  we  find 
the  various  races  of  mankind  distinct,  and  no  history  informs 
U9  of  the  origin  of  the  differences.  We  have  therefore  only 
to  consider  them  in  their  separate  states,  or  as  intermingled 
with  and  affecting  each  other. 

Original  State  of  Man. 

Another  point  which  has  given  occasion  to  a  good  deal  of 
ingenious  conjecture,  is  the  original  state  of  mankind.  Philo- 
sophers, on  surveying  the  human  race  in  its  different  situa- 
tions, have  traced  out  four  distinct  states, — those  of  the  mere 
fruit  and  plant-eater,  the  hunter,  the  herdsman,  and  the  cul- 
tivator,— and  have  generally  inferred  that  man  has  pro- 
gressively passed  through  all  these  states,  commencing  at  the 
lowest.  Yet  this  is  still  but  mere  conjecture,  unsupported  by 
any  historic  evidence.  No  tribe  has  ever  yet  been  found  to 
civilize  itself;  instruction  and  improvement  always  come  to 
it  from  abroad ;  and  experience  would  rather  lead  to  the  in- 
ference, that  the  savage  is  a  degeneration  from  the  civilized 
life."  In  the  very  earliest  history,  that  of  the  Bible,  we  find 
the  pastoral  and  agricultural  life  coexisting  almost  from  the 
commencement  of  the  world;  at  all  periods  we  find  man 
possessed  of  the  Hseful  and  necessary  arts,  the  master  of 


MAP.  L  INTRODUCTION.  17 

rtocks  and  herds,  the  employer  of  the  spaxie,  the  plow,  and 
the  sickle.  It  is  in  vain  we  seek  for  commencement, — all  is 
progress.  In  imagination,  we  may  conceive  a  time,  when 
the  human  race  was  in  the  lowest  degree  of  culture ;  but,  on 
inquiry,  we  everywhere  meet  the  arts,  meet  men  collected 
into  societies,  meet  property,  legislation,  and  government. 

It  may  perhaps  be  collected  from  the  testimony  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  and  from  the  deductions  of  philosophy,  that 
man  has  always  existed  in  society,  and  that  the  first  societies 
were  families,  the  first  form  of  government  patriarchal :  and 
the  following  may  be  stated  as  the  most  probable  hypothesis ; 
namely,  that  man  commenced  his  existence  in  the  social  state 
mider  the  mild  and  gentle  form  of  government  denominated 
patriarchal ;  that  his  first  nourishment  was  the  fruits  of  trees 
and  plants,  which  ripened  in  abundance  for  the  supply  of  his 
wants  in  some  temperate  and  fertile  region  of  the  earth, 
possibly  that  at  the  south  of  Caucasus,  or  where  now  extends 
the  paradisal  vale  of  Cashmeer ;  that  gradually  he  became  a 
keeper  of  flocks  and  herds,  and  a  cultivator  of  corn;  that 
families  spread  and  combined ;  and  that  from  their  union 
^Tose  monarchies,  the  most  ancient  form  of  extended  civil 
government. 

It  is  in  this  last  state  that  we  propose  to  consider  mankind, 
and  to  trace  the  great  and  important  events  that  have  taken 
place  among  the  various  stems  and  branches  of  the  human 
race;  to  show  how,  beneath  the  guiding  energy  of  the 
Creator  and  Ruler,  the  great  machme  of  human  society  has 
proceeded  on  its  way,  at  tunes  advancmg,  at  tiines  apparently 
retrograding,  in  the  path  of  perfection  and  happiness.  And  the 
final  result  of  our  view  of  the  deeds  and  destinies  of  man 
will,  we  trust,  be  a  firm  conviction  in  the  mind  of  every 
reader  that  private  and  public  felicity  is  the  result  alone  of 
^ood  education,  wise  laws,  and  just  government,  and  that  all 
power  which  is  not  based  on  equity  is  imstable  and  transient. 

It  is  to  the  Caucasian  race  that  the  history  of  the  world 
must  mainly  confine  itself,  for  with  that  race  has  originated 
almost  all  that  ennobles  and  dignifies  mankind:  it  is  the 
chief  depository  of  literature,  and  the  great  instructor  of 
philosophical,  political,  and  religious  systems.  We  shall  re- 
Blrict  ourselves,  therefore,  chiefly  to  the  history  of  that  race, 
briefly  premising  views  of  the  state  and  character  of  the 
/Ethiopians,  the  Mongols,  and  the  Indians. 

^Ethiopians. 
We  have  already  observed,  that  under  this  name  are  in- 
9  uded  all  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  whose  bodily  conforma- 
2* 


18  HISTORY  OV  THE  WORLD.  PART  t 

tion  does  not  prove  them  to  be  of  the  Caucasian  race.  The 
Indefiniteness  of  the  term  Ethiopian  employed  by  the  Greeks, 
ind  applied  by  them  to  all  people  of  a  dark  complexion,  and 
ihe  similar  indefiniteness  of  the  Hebrew  Cush,  prevent  our 
being  able  positively  to  say  whether  the  obscure  traditions  of 
the  Ethiopian  power  extending  along  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  straits  of  Gades,  and  of  that  people  having,  under  their 
king  Tearcho,  made  themselves  so  formidable  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  coasts  of  the  -^gean,  are  to  be  understood  of  a 
purely  Negro  empire,  or  of,  what  is  much  more  probable,  a 
state  like  that  of  Egypt,  where  the  lower  orders  of  society 
were  of  Negro,  the  higher  and  dominant  classes  of  Caucasian 
race.  Within  the  historic  period  of  both  ancient  and  modern 
times,  the  ^Ethiopian  race  only  appears  as  furnishing  slaves 
for  the  service  of  the  Caucasian,  to  whom  it  has  been  always 
as  inferior  in  mental  power  as  in  bodily  configuration.  Though 
modern  travel  has  discovered  within  the  torrid  wastes  of 
Africa  large  communities  ruled  over  by  Negro  princes,  and 
a  knowledge  of  many  of  the  useful  arts,  yet  civilization  and 
policy  have  never  reared  their  heads  in  the  ungenial  clime. 
As  literature  has  never  been  theirs,  whatever  revolutions 
may  have  taken  place  among  them  are  buried  in  oblivion,  and 
they  claim  no  station  of  eminence  in  the  history  of  the  world 

Thp  Chinese. 

I'he  Mongols  stand  far  higher  in  the  scale  of  intellect  and 
in  importance  than  the  ^Ethiopia  ns.  As  we  proceed,  we  shall 
find  them  striking  terror  into  Furope  by  their  arms  and  their 
numbers.  One  nation  of  this  race,  the  Chinese,  has  long 
been  an  object  of  curiosity  to  the  western  world,  from  its  ex- 
tent of  empire  and  the  singularity  of  its  social  institutions. 
I  The  Chinese  empif  ""cuf  ies  an  extent  of  surface  equal  to 
that  of  all  Europe,  containii.  g  within  it  every  variety  of  soil 
and  climate,  and  natural  production ;  thus  rendering  it  in 
itself  perfectly  independent  of  all  foreign  aid.  In  its  social 
institutions  it  has  presented  through  all  periods  a  model  of 
the  primitive  form  of  government,  the  patriarchal,  and  an 
exemplification  of  the  evil  of  continuing  it  beyond  its  just 
and  necessary  period.  In  Chii.a  all  is  at  a  stand-still;  sue 
ceeding  ages  add  not  to  the  knowledge  of  those  that  have  gone 
before  •  no  one  must  presume  to  be  wiser  than  his  fathers : 
around  the  Son  of  Heaven,  as  they  designate  their  emperor, 
assemble  the  learned  of  the  land  as  his  council;  so  in  the 
provinces  the  learned  in  their  several  degrees  around  the 
governor;  and  laws  and  rules  are  passed  from  the  highest 
down  to  the  lowest,  to  be  by  them  given  to  the  people.  Every 


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CHAP.  1.  INTRODUCTION.  21 

even  die  most  minute,  circumstance  of  common  life  is  rcgvj 
lated  by  law.  It  matters  not,  for  example,  what  may  be  the 
woalth  of  an  individual,  he  must  wear  the  dress  and  build  his 
house  after  the  mode  prescribed  by  ancient  regulations.  In 
China  every  thing  bears  the  stamp  of  antiquity :  immovable- 
ness  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  the  nation ;  every  imple- 
ment retains  its  primitive  rude  form ;  every  invention  haa 
stopped  at  the  first  step.  The  gradual  progress  towards  per- 
fection of  the  Caucasian  race  is  unknown  in  China ;  the  plow 
is  still  drawn  by  men ;  the  written  characters  of  their  mono- 
syllabic language  stand  for  ideas,  not  for  simple  sounds ;  and 
the  laborious  task  of  learning  to  read  occupies  the  time  that 
might  be  employed  in  the  acquisition  of  valuable  knowledge. 
Literature  has  been  at  all  periods  cultivated  by  a  nation 
where  learning  (such  as  it  is)  is  the  only  road  to  honor  and 
dignity,  and  books  beginning  with  the  five  Kings  of  Con-fu- 
tsee,  which  equal  the  four  Vedas  of  India  in  the  honor  in 
which  they  are  held,  have  at  all  times  been  common  in  this 
empire.  A  marked  feature  in  the  Chinese  character  is  tlie 
absence  of  imagination:  all  is  the  product  of  cold  reason. 
The  Kings  speak  not  of  a  God,  and  present  no  system  of  re- 
ligion :  every  thing  of  that  nature  in  China  came  from  India. 
The  uncertain  history  of  China  ascends  to  about  2500 
years  before  the  Christian  era;  the  certain  history  commences 
about  eight  centuries  before  Christ.  According  to  Chi- 
nese tradition,  the  founders  of  the  state,  a  hundred  families 
in  number,  descended  from  the  mountains  of  Kulcum,  on  the 
lake  of  Khukhunor,  north-west  of  China;  and  hence  the 
middle  provinces  of  Chensee,  Leong,  Honan,  &c.  were  the 
first  seats  of  their  cultivation.  These  provinces  are  in  the 
same  climate  as  Greece  and  Italy.  Twenty-two  dynasties  of 
princes  are  enumerated  as  having  governed  China  to  the 
present  day,  the  actual  emperor  being  the  fifth  monarch  of 
the  twenty-second  or  Tai  Tsin  dynasty.  Of  these  dynasties, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Song,  which  ruled  over 
the  southern  empire  at  the  time  China  was  divided  into  two, 
and  fell  beneath  the  arms  of  the  Yver  or  mingled  nomadic 
tribes,  led  to  conquest  by  the  descendants  of  Chingis  Khan. 
This  line,  which  reigned  from  A.  D.  960  to  1280,  distinguish- 
ed itself  by  the  encouragement  of  the  arts  and  sciences ;  it 
cultivated  relations  with  Japan,  fostered  trade  and  commerce, 
and  in  all  things' went  contrary  to  the  established  maxims  of 
Chinese  policy,  and  while  it  lasted  the  empire  bloomed  be- 
neath its  sway ;  but  the  hordes  of  the  desert  levelled  its  glo- 
ries, j»nd  its  fate  has  been  ever  since  held  up  as  an  awfiil 
warning  to  those  who  venture  to  depart  even  a  hair's  breadth 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I 

from  the  ancient  manners.     At  an  earlier  period,  under  the 
dynasty  of  Tsin  (248—206  B.  C),  China  first  received  reli- 

fion  from  India ;  but  the  missionaries  were  not  artful  or  pru- 
ent  enough  to  adapt  it  to  Cliinese  maxims  of  state,  and  they 
were  unsuccessful  in  the  contest  between  them  and  the 
learned.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  Buddhism  of  India  had 
become  the  Lamaism  of  Tibet,  it  entered  China  as  the  reli 
gion  of  Foe,  and  by  the  worldly  prudence  of  its  bonzes  or 
priests,  succeeded  in  gaining  a  favorable  reception  and  be- 
coming the  religion  of  the  state.  Every  thing  that  hopes  for 
success  in  this  country  must  fall  in  with  the  national  charao- 
ter.  China  has  often  been  overcome,  and  its  reigning  dynasty 
changed ;  but  the  manners  and  institutions  of  China  remain 
unaltered,  as  different  from  those  of  the  Caucasian  race  aa 
the  features  of  the  Chinese  face  are  from  those  of  the  Euro- 
pean. 

India. 

From  the  Chinese,  a  nation  of  cold  reason,  almost  no  reli- 
gion, monosyllabic,  unharmonious  language,  and  literature 
full  of  events  and  valuable  matter,  we  pass  to  their  neighbors 
of  India,  whom  every  thing  but  color  indicates  to  belong  to 
the  same  family  with  the  Europeans.  Here  we  find  glowing 
fancy,  and  in  Brahmanism  a  luxuriant  system  of  religion,  a 
majestic  and  richly  inflected  language,  and  a  literature  fiall 
to  exuberance  of  the  highest  poetry.  But  India  has  no  his- 
tory or  chronology  of  its  own,  and  it  is  in  the  time  of  the 
Persian  kings  that  it  first  appears  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Yet  the  testimony  of  antiquity,  its  proximity  to  the  original 
land  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  the  primitive  character  of 
its  social  institutions,  prove  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient 
nations  of  the  earth. 

In  India,  religion  and  priestly  influence  have  effected  what 
law  and  tradition  have  produced  in  China — the  absolute  pros- 
tration of  the  intellect  of  the  nation.  The  system  of  castea 
sets  a  bar  to  all  ambition  and  to  all  energy.  No  development 
of  mind  can  take  place  where  every  man's  station  in  life  is 
immutably  marked  out  for  him.  The  nation  presents  at  the 
present  day  the  same  spectacle  which  excited  the  wonder  of 
the  Greeks  who  accompanied  Alexander ;  an  immense,  gentle, 
and  peaceful  population;  abundance  of  wealth;  all  the  useful, 
necessary,  and  ornamental  arts  of  life ;  a  manifold,  intricate 
system  of  religion,  abounding  in  rites  and  ceremonies,  many 
of  them  of  the  most  lascivious  character. 

Like  China,  India  is  an  instance  of  the  fatal  effect  of  check- 
ing the  free  development  of  mind:  here,  too,  every  thing  i« 


CHAP.  I.  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  23 

stationary.  The  love  of  country  is  a  feeling  miknown  to  the 
breast  of  the  inhabitants,  and  India  has  been  at  all  periods 
the  easy  prey  of  every  invader  whom  its  wealtli  attracted. 
Omitting  the  faBulous  expeditions  of  Sesostris  and  Semiramis, 
the  earliest  account  we  have  of  a  conquest  of  any  part  of  this 
country  is  of  that  by  Cyrus  and  Darius  I.,  kings  of  Persia; 
next  Alexander  tlie  Great  with  ease  overthrew  all  that  op- 
posed him,  and,  but  for  the  refusal  of  his  troops,  would  have 
planted  his  standards  on  tlie  banks  of  the  Ganges.  Seleucus 
Nicator  ruled  over  the  provinces  conquered  by  Alexander, 
reached  in  conquest  the  banks  of  the  Jumnah,  and  subdued  a 
large  portion  of  Bengal.  When  the  feeble  successors  of  Se- 
leucus had  lost  their  power  over  other  subject  nations,  their 
vicegerents  were  still  obeyed  during  a  period  of  60  years  by 
a  great  part  of  India.  A  hundred  and  twenty  years  after 
the  death  of  AlexEinder,  Antiochus  the  Great  invaded  and 
conquered  a  considerable  portion  of  India ;  and  when  he  was 
overcome  by  the  Romans,  all  his  possessions  west  of  the  Indus 
fell  to  Euthydemus,  the  Grecian  sovereign  of  Bactria,  and 
India  cheerfully  obeyed  him.  He  was  unable  to  effect  the 
succession  of  his  son  Demetrius  in  Bactria ;  but  over  the  In- 
dian provinces  that  prince  reigned  without  opposition.  Eu- 
cratides,  the  fifth  of  the  Grseco-Bactrian  kings,  reunited  to 
Bactria  the  Indian  possessions,  and  every  succeeding  reigning 
line  in  Persia  had  dominions  in  India,  till  it  was  eventually 
overrun  and  occupied  by  Mohammedan  conquerors.  For  the 
last  thousand  years  it  has  been  the  prey  of  every  foreign 
BpoUer.  Thus  India  seems  destined  never  to  enjoy  national 
independence :  her  countless  millions  doomed  for  ever  to  bow 
beneath  a  foreign  sceptre,  she  stands  an  instructive  monu- 
ment of  the  evUs  iesulting  from  fettered  intellect  and  priestly 
dominion. 


CHAP.  II. 

THK   ANCIENT  ft  "All*    CF   CENTRAL   AND   WESTERN   ASIA. 

Bactria. 

According  to  the  trac'tions  of  hoary  antiquity  preserved 
in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,  and  in  the  Shah  Nameh, 
the  immortal  poem  of  Ferdoosee,  there  existed  in  the  most 
remote  ages,  with  sacerdotal  institutions  akin  to  tliose  of  India, 
a  mighty  and  extensive  empire  in  Bactria  or  Eastern  Persia. 
Grecian  writers  confirm  this  account,  and  it  is  farther  proved 


24  mSTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PAET  1 

by  the  route  of  the  Caucasian  race,  who,  in  their  progress 
along  the  mountains,  must  have  been  attracted  by  these  fer- 
tile regions,  abounding  in  every  production,*  protected  by 
lofty  impassable  mountains  to  the  north,  and  bordering  on  the 
realms  of  India  and  Babylonia.  The  branch  of  the  Caucasian 
stem,  called  the  Indo-Persian  race,  spread  over  Iran,  the 
country  between  Babylonia  and  India.  Its  chief  seat  was 
Bactria.  Here,  according  to  Persian  tradition,  ruled  Cayu- 
marath,  the  first  of  men,  or  of  kings,  and  his  descendants, 
till  Jemsheed  was  overthrown  by  the  Aramaean  Zohak.  The 
system  of  religion  named  from  Zoroaster  prevailed  in  Bac- 
tria, and  the  sacerdotal  caste  stood  in  rights  and  privileges 
nearly  on  a  par  with  the  Bramins  of  India,  who,  probably, 
possessed  originally  a  similar  institution.  The  idolatrous 
Aramsean  priesthood  united  itself  with  that  of  Bactria ;  but 
when  the  Aramaean  or  Babylonian  dominion  sank,  and  the 
Iranian  revived  in  the  person  of  Feridoon,  the  old  religion 
recovered  its  dominion.  .  Changes  of  dynasty  affected  it  not ; 
it  passed  to  the  Modes  and  Persians,  and  still  was  flourishing 
whpn  the  disciples  of  Mohammed  extinguished  it  in  blood ; 
and  it  yet  lingers  among  the  Parsees  of  India,  the  descend- 
ants of  those  who  sought  refuge  in  that  country  from  perse- 
cution. But  the  simple  religion  of  Zoroaster,  which  wor- 
shipped under  the  emblem  of  light  and  fire  the  Author  of  life 
and  happiness,  had  not  the  debasing  effects  of  the  intricate 
idolatry  and  metaphysics  of  India ;  and  if  Iran  fell  beneath 
foreign  conquerors,  the  fault  was  not  in  her  system  of  re- 
ligion. 

Babylon  and  Assyria. 

We  now  begin  to  tread  on  more  solid  ground,  for  in  the 
earliest  portion  of  the  far  most  credible  ancient  history,  that 
of  the  Hebrews,  we  observe  a  recognition  of  the  empires  of 
Babylon  and  Assyria.  From  them,  too,  we  may  infer,  that 
Babylon  was  the  more  ancient,  for  the  city  of  that  name  ia 
mentioned  at  a  time  while  the  Hebrews  were  still  in  the  no- 
fctdic  state.  We  hear  not  till  long  after  of  Nineveh,  the 
Assyrian  capital  on  the  Tigris. 

The  Babylonians  dwelt  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Lower  Eu- 
phrates, and  their  industry  had  made  their  land  the  garden 
of  Asia.  They  were  a  peaceful  people,  as  is  shown  by  their 
manufactures,  and  their  provisions  for  watering  their  lands 
Herodotus  describes  them  as  a  luxurious  trafficking  people, 
fond  of  splendid  dress  and  ornaments.  Various  d3masties  o* 
kings  of  the  surrounding  nations  are  related  to  have  ruled  ii 
Babylon.  This  wealthy  state  must  have  been  at  all  tunes  ex 


rflil      '; 


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tHAP.  11.  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  27 

posed  to  the  incursions  of  the  nomadic  tribes  that  surrounded 
it,  and  sometimes  conquered  by  them.  The  city  is  stated  to 
have  been  built  in  the  most  remote  ages  by  the  god  Bel,  and 
to  have  been  enlarged  and  adorned  by  Semiramis,  probably 
also  a  mythic  personage.  In  the  historic  period,  we  find  it 
farther  improved  and  adorned  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the 
queen  Nitocris.  The  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  the 
mosc  brilliant  period  of  Babylon.  He  ruled  from  the  foot  of 
Caucasus  to  the  deserts  of  Libya.  Judcea,  Phoenicia,  Egypt, 
all  the  tribes  of  the  desert,  did  homage  to  his  power.  But 
the  glory  was  transient :  in  the  reign  of  his  son  the  Babylo- 
nian dominion  sank,  never  to  rise,  beneath  the  arms  of  the 
Modes  and  Persians. 

The  Assyrian  empire  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Upper  Eu 
phrates,  rose  much  later  than  the  Babylonian,  which  it  sub- 
dued, but  which  under  the  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar  cast  off 
the  yoke,  and  attained  the  power  we  have  just  described.  Of 
the  Assyrian  history  little  is  known. 

A  caste  of  priests  named  Chaldeans,  distinguished  for  their 
Knowledge  of  the  order  and  courses  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
the  objects  of  Babylonian  worship,  was  to  be  found  here ;  b- 
the  early  establishment  of  despotism  permitted  not  a  divisicii 
of  the  people  into  any  other  castes.  These  Chaldeans  were 
divided  into  several  orders  under  a  head  appointed  by  the 
king.  Birth  was  not  a  necessary  qualification  for  admittance 
into  their  body.  We  find  (as  in  the  case  of  Daniel)  Jews 
placed  in  the  highest  rank  among  them.  They  derived  their 
support  from  lands  aosigned  to  them.  The  nature  of  the  oc- 
cupations of  the  Babylonians  made  a  race  of  men  of  import- 
ance, who  pretended  to  a  knowledge  of  the  ways  of  the  gods, 
who  measured  the  land,  marked  the  seasons,  and  announced 
the  hours  of  good  and  evil  fortune :  yet  almost  all  their  boasted 
wisdom  was  mere  jugglery  and  deceit. 

Egypt* 

The  valley  watered  by  the  Nile,  and  inclosed  between  the 
desert  on  the  west,  and  barren  mountains  on  the  east,  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  renowned  empires  of 
which  we  have  any  record  remaining.  A  branch  of  the  Cau- 
casian race,  it  would  appear,  crossed  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Man- 
deb.  It  mastered  the  y^'^thiopians  whom  it  met,  and  founded 
an  empire  on  the  system  of  castes  in  Nubia ;  then  advanced 
with  the  stream,  and  established  that  of  Upper  Egypt;  and 

•  Egypt,  thoiiph  properly  in  Africa,  has  been  included  in  this  chapUr.  to 
avoid  leetlless  subdivision. 


lastly,  spread  over  Lower  Egypt  and  the  Delta  now  formed 
by  the  Nile.  But  this  was  long  anterior  to  the  commence- 
ment of  history.  So  early  as  the  days  of  Abranam,  Lower 
Egypt  was  the  seat  of  a  rich,  flourishing,  and  civilized  state. 

The  turn  of  mind  of  this  branch  of  the  Caucasian  stem  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  branch  which  established  itself  in  India. 
Hence  some  have  needlessly  supposed  that  one  country  waa 
colonized  by  the  other.  Here,  as  in  India,  the  priestly  caste 
enjoyed  high  power  and  privileges.  They  were  the  deposi- 
tories of  all  arts  and  sciences ;  they  not  only  were  the  di- 
rectors of  the  employments  of  life,  but  possessed  the  awful 
office  of  judges  of  the  dead,  who  were  brought  before  their 
tribunal  ere  consigned  to  the  tomb ;  and  by  numerous  prac- 
tices and  ceremonies,  they  for  ever  kept  the  idea  and  the  fear 
of  death  before  the  eyes  of  the  people.  Their  own  religious 
system,  known  to  the  initiated  alone,  was  perfectly  simple  : 
what  they  tauglit  the  people  in  symbol  and  figure  was  com- 
plex, obscene,  and  degrading.  Independence  was  secured  to 
the  sacerdotal  order  by  the  immunity  of  their  lands  from  im- 
posts. 

Yet  priestly  sway  never  attained  the  same  height  here  as 
in  India.  Egypt  was  a  conquered  country,  and  numerous 
tribes  of  nomades  and  other  classes,  who  never  completely 
amalgamated  with  the  conquerors,  roamed  the  land,  some- 
times independent,  sometimes  obedient.  Hence  the  king  was 
in  a  great  measure  independent  of  the  priests.  The  history 
of  Joseph  informs  us,  that  the  king  had  a  fifth  of  the  produce 
of  the  land,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  this  minister,  could  ap- 
point a  stranger  and  an  uninitiated  person  to  the  highest  office 
of  the  state,  and  give  him  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  the 
high  priest.  We  therefore  read  of  internal  tumults  and  for- 
eign wars,  the  fabulous  expeditions  of  Sesostris,  the  real 
campaigns  against  Judaea  and  more  distant  powers.  Arabian 
and  Nubian  monarchs  have  ruled  over  Egypt ;  it  fell  before 
the  Babylonian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman  power,  yet  the 
castes,  as  in  India,  subsisted  through  every  shock. 

Where  the  system  of  castes  prevails,  the  inferior  castes 
are  always  of  a  peaceful,  industrious  character.  Each  per- 
son's walk  of  life  being  marked  out  for  him,  he  pursues  it 
with  the  regularity  and  mechanism  of  mere  matter.  All  we 
learn  of  ancient  Egypt  corresponds  with  this  principle  :  the 
narrowness  and  fertility  of  the  land  caused  an  excessive  pop- 
ulation ;  agriculture  could  employ  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
people;  the  sedentary  arts  were  therefore  cultivated  to  a 
great  extent,  and  the  division  of  labor  was  carried  almost  be- 
yond any  thing  similar  in  modern  times.    The  accounts  we 


CHAP.  H.  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  29 

have  of  emigrations  from  Egypt  are  obscure,  and  many  of 
'.hem  not  very  credible.  The  plan  devised  for  preventing  the 
3vilsof  over-populousness  was,  to  accustom  the  lower  orders 
to  a  spare  diet,  and  employ  them  on  tlie  construction  of  huge 
edifices,  destined  for  tombs,  or  the  temples  of  religion.  Hence 
the  pyramids  and  excavated  temples  which  still  excite  the 
wonder  of  the  vi^orld,  and  prove  what  may  be  effected  by  the 
aid  of  the  simplest  machinery,  with  time,  numbers,  and  per- 
severance. 

The  knowledge  of  the  Egyptians  has  been  much  over- 
rated. The  great  trait  of  a  sacerdotal  period  is  everywhere 
to  be  discerned.  Every  thing  advanced  to  a  certain  point  of 
perfection ;  there  stopped,  never  to  advance,  but  rather  to 
recede.  It  is  remarked,  that  in  design  and  execution  the  more 
ancient  monuments  exceed  the  later. 

Phcznicia. 

A  portion  of  the  Aramjean  race  was  settled  on  thb  Persian 
Gulf  It  was  given  to  trade  and  commerce,  and  settled  a 
colony  on  the  coast  of  Syria.  These  colonists  were  named 
the  Phoenicians ;  their  chief  city  was  Sidon,  and  they  after- 
wards built  Tyre  on  an  island  near  the  coast.  Their  manu- 
factures, especially  of  glass,  were  celebrated  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  While  surrounded  by  nomadic  tribes,  they 
seem  to  have  made  little  advances  in  wealth  and  power, 
though  they  had  extended  their  settlements  to  some  distance 
inland.  But  when  the  Israelites  took  possession  of  Canaan, 
and  applied  themselves  to  agriculture,  the  trade  of  the  Pha3- 
nicians  rapidly  increased ;  their  ships  visited  the  isles  and 
coasts  of  the  ^gean,  and  the  distant  ports  of  Italy  and  Spain. 
Numerous  colonies,  of  which  Carthage  was  chief,  were  es- 
tablished by  them.  In  their  impregnable  island-city  they 
could  bid  defiance  to  the  might  of  Israel,  Egypt,  and  Babylon. 
Luxury  flourished  in  this  city,  whose  "merchants  were 
princes :"  their  religion  was  bloody  and  cruel,  their  form  of 
government  monarchical. 

Philistines. 
This  people,  celebrated  for  their  wars  with  the  Israelites, 
dwelt  on  a  small  strip  of  sea-coast  south  oftheTyrians.  They 
were  originally,  it  is  thought,  a  colony  from  Egypt.  They 
possessed  five  cities  under  the  government  of  five  princes, 
and  confederated  together  for  mutual  defence.  Trade  and 
piracy  were  their  chief  means  of  subsistence.  Their  long  and 
sbstmate  resistance  against  the  arms  of  the  Israelites  testifies 
3* 


30  raSTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

their  valor  and  love  of  independence.     A  seafaring  people* 
the  chief  object  of  their  wrorship  was  a  sea-god,  Dagon. 

Arabia. 

From  the  earliest  dawn  of  history  the  Arabs  have  led  the 
nomadic  life,  to  which  the  nature  of  their  country  has  des- 
tined them.  The  numerous  tribes,  under  the  government  of 
their  sheikhs  and  emirs,  roam  the  desert  apart — now  in  friend- 
ship, now  in  hostility.  The  camel  and  the  horse  are  their 
companions  and  support.  The  strangers  who  penetrate  their 
wilds  have  always  been  regarded  as  lawful  prizes.  Under 
the  various  names  of  Edomites,  Ishmaelites,  Midianites,  &c. 
we  find  their  tribes  in  friendly  or  hostile  relations  with  the 
nation  of  Israel,  with  whom  many  of  them  acknowledged  a 
kindred.  Their  religious  worship  was  chiefly  directed  to  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

Israelites. 

At  a  very  remote  period  of  antiquity,  when  the  sacerdotal 
caste  in  Babylonia  had  begun  to  spread  idolatry  even  among 
the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  land,  a  man  named  Abraham,  dis- 
tinguished by  wealth,  wisdom,  and  probity,  in  obedience  to 
the  commands  of  the  Deity,  quitted  the  land  of  his  fathers, 
and  journeyed  with  his  family  and  his  herds  towards  the  land 
of  Canaan.  His  faith  in  the  only  God,  and  his  obedience  to 
his  will,  were  here  rewarded  by  increasing  wealth  and  num 
bers.  His  son  and  grandson  continued  the  same  nomadic 
life  in  Palestine  which  Abraham  and  his  fathers  had  led.  By 
a  surprising  turn  of  fortune,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  the 
grandson  of  Abraham,  became  vizier  to  the  king  of  Egypt : 
he  brought  his  father  and  family  to  that  country,  and  a  dis- 
trict in  the  north-east  of  Egypt  was  assigned  to  them  by  the 
king  for  the  sustenance  of  themselves  and  their  flocks  and 
herds. 

During  430  years  their  numbers  increased  exceedingly.  A 
new  dynasty  now  filled  the  Egyptian  throne,  and  tliey  feared 
the  power  of  a  numerous  people  attached  to  the  former  line, 
and  dwelling  in  the  key  of  the  land  towards  Asia.  They 
sought,  therefore,  to  change  their  mode  of  life,  and  by  impos- 
ing heavy  tasks  upon  them  to  check  their  increase,  and  grad 
ually  to  wear  them  out. 

During  this  period  of  oppression  Moses  was  born.  The 
Egyptian  monarch  had  ordered  all  the  male  children  of  the 
Israelites  to  be  destroyed  at  the  birth;  aid  the  mother  of 
Moses,  after  concealing  him  for  some  time,  was  obliged  to 
expose  him.  Tlie  daughter  of  the  king  found  him,  and  reared 


•,.iiii,i 


"''^^  mm 


CHAP.  II  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  33 

nim  as  her  owri  As  he  grew  up,  he  was  mstructed  in  the 
secret  wisdom  of  rhe  priests ;  but  neither  knowledge,  nor  the 
honors  and  splendor  of  the  court,  could  make  him  behold  with 
indifference  the  state  of  his  native  people.  He  mourned  over 
their  oppression,  and  panted  to  behold  them  in  their  former 
happy  independence. 

Seeing  an  Egyptian  ill-treat  an  Israelite,  he  slew  him ;  and, 
fearing  the  vengeance  of  the  king,  fled  to  Arabia,  where  he 
led  a  shepherd's  life,  near  Sinai,  in  the  service  of  an  Arab 
sheikh.  While  here,  he  received  the  command  of  God  to 
lead  his  people  out  of  Egypt :  he  returned  thither,  and,  by 
performing  many  wondrous  deeds,  compelled  the  reluctant 
monarch  to  let  his  slaves  depart.  But  Pharaoh  repented, 
pursued,  and  he  and  his  whole  army  perished  in  the  waves 
of  the  Red  Sea. 

During  their  long  residence  in  Egypt,  the  Israelites  had 
gradually  been  passing  from  the  nomadic  to  the  agricultural 
life,  and  had  contracted  much  of  the  impure  religious  ideas 
and  licentious  manners  of  the  Egyptians.  They  were  now 
to  be  brought  back  to  the  simple  religion  of  their  fathers,  and 
a  form  of  government  established  among  them  calculated  to 
preserve  them  in  the  purity  of  their  simple  faith.  It  pleased 
the  Deity  to  be  himself,  under  the  name  of  Jehovah,  the  King 
of  Israel,  and  their  civil  institutions  were  to  resemble  tliose 
of  the  country  they  had  left,  freed  from  all  that  might  be  pre- 
judicial to  the  great  object  in  view — that  of  making  them  a 
nation  of  monotheistic  faith. 

In  the  midst  of  lightning  and  thunder,  while  Sinai  re- 
echoed to  the  roar,  the  first  simple  elements  of  their  future 
law  were  presented  to  the  children  of  Israel.  No  images, 
no  hieroglyphics,  were  admitted  into  the  religion  now  given : 
ceremonies  of  significant  import  were  annexed,  to  employ  the 
minds  and  engage  the  attention  of  a  rude  people.  There  was 
a  sacerdotal  caste,  to  whom  the  direction  of  all  matters  relat- 
mg  to  religion  and  law  (which  were  in  this  government  the 
game)  was° intrusted :  but  they  had  no  dogmas  or  mysteries 
wherewith  to  fetter  the  minds  of  the  people ;  and  being  as- 
signed for  their  maintenance,  not  separate  lands,  but  a  por- 
tion of  the  produce  of  the  whole  country,  their  interest  would 
lead  them  to  stimulate  the  people  to  agriculture,  and  thus 
carry  into  effect  the  object  of  the  constitution.  As  priests, 
judges,  advocates,  writers,  and  physicians,  they  were  of  im- 
portant service  in  the  community,  and  fully  earned  the  tenth 
of  the  produce  which  was  allotted  to  them.  Their  division 
into  priests  and  Levites  was  a  wise  provision  against  that 
too  sharp  distinction  which  in  Egypt  and  India  prevailed  be- 


34  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD,  PART  I. 

tween  the  sacerdotal  and  the  other  castes.  The  Levites,  being 
assijfned  some  lands,  formed  a  connecting  link  between  the 
priests  and  the  cultivators. 

Agriculture  being  the  destination  of  the  Israelites,  trade 
was  discouraged ;  for  the  fairs  and  markets  were  held  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  heathen  temples.  But  to  compensate 
them  for  the  prohibition  against  sharing  in  the  joyous  festivi- 
ties of  the  surrounding  nations,  feasts  were  held  three  times 
in  each  year  to  commemorate  their  emancipation,  the  giving 
of  the  law,  and  tlieir  abode  in  the  desert.  At  these  festivals, 
all  Israel  was  required  to  attend,  that  the  bonds  of  brotlier- 
hood  might  be  kept  up  among  the  tribes  by  participation  in 
social  enjoyment. 

Thus,  many  years  before  Con-fu-tsee  gave  the  Kings  to 
the  Chinese,  long  ere  any  lawgiver  arose  in  Greece,  Moses, 
directed  by  God,  gave  to  Israel,  in  the  wastes  of  Arabia,  a 
constitution,  the  wonder  of  succeeding  ages,  and  ever  memo- 
rable for  the  influence  it  has  exerted  on  the  minds  and  insti- 
tutions of  a  large  and  important  portion  of  mankind. 

During  forty  years,  till  all  the  degenerate  race  who  had 
left  Egypt  had  died  off,  Moses  detained  the  Israelites  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  accustoming  them  to  obey  their  law,  and 
preparing  them  for  the  conquest  of  the  land  assigned  as  their 
possession.  At  the  end  of  that  period  their  inspired  legislator 
led  them  to  the  borders  of  the  promised  land,  and  having  ap- 
pointed Joshua  to  be  his  successor,  he  ascended  a  lofty  moun- 
tain to  take  a  view  of  the  country  he  was  not  to  enter :  he 
there  died  in  the  120th  year  of  his  age.  Under  the  guidance 
of  Joshua,  Israel  passed  the  Jordan ;  the  God  of  Moses  was 
with  them,  and  inspired  them  with  valor  to  subdue  their  foes. 
A  speedy  conquest  gave  them  the  land.  No  fixed  govern- 
ment had  been  appointed  ;  the  people  gradually  fell  from  the 
service  of  Jehovah  to  worship  the  idols  of  the  surrounding 
nations ;  and  Jehovah  gave  them  up  into  the  power  of  their 
enemies.  At  times  there  arose  among  them  heroes,  denomi- 
nated judges,  who,  inspired  with  patriotism  and  zeal  for  the 
law,  aroused  the  slumbering  tribes,  and  led  them  to  victory. 
Then,  too,  arose  that  noble  order  of  prophets  who,  in  heaven- 
inspired  strains  of  poetry,  exalted  the  Mosaic  law,  and  im- 
pressed its  precepts,  its  rewards,  and  threats,  on  the  minds  of 
the  people. 

After  the  time  of  the  judges,  the  temporal  and  spiritual 

dignities  were,  contrary  to  the   intention  of  the   lawgiver, 

B.  c.  united,  and  the  high-priest  exercised  the  sovereign  power 

»156.  This  lasted  but  a  short  time :  in  the  person  of  the  upright 

Samuel,  a  prophet,  the  temporal  was  again  divided  from  the 


EGYPTIAN  BANNERS. 

1.  Hawkhcad,  Upj^er  and  Lower  Countries. 

2.  King's  Head,  Upper  Country.     3.  Ibis. 

4.  Jackal.     6.  Ark.     6.  Sun.     7.  Sacred  Ark. 
i.  Triumph.     9.  Headof  Isis. 


Suraj-ud-Dowlah  and  his  Sons. 


CHAP.  II.  CENTRAL,  AND  WESTERN  ASIA  37 

(Spiritual  dignity.     Tlie  sons  of  Samuel  trod  not  in  the  steps 
of  their  virtuous  father.    The  prospect  of  beinjr  governed  by 
them,  and  the  want  of  a  military  leader  to  conunand  them  in 
their  wars  with  the  surrounding  nations,  made  the  people  call  g  ^ 
on  Samu-il  to  give  them  a  king.     He  complied  with  their  1095 
wishes,  warning  them  of  the  consequences  of  their  desire, 
and  appointed  Saul.     This  monarch  was  victorious  in  war; 
but  he  disobeyed  the  voice  of  the  prophet,  and  misfortune 
ever  after  pursued  him.  It  pleased  Jehovah  to  take  the  king- 
dom from  him,  and  Samuel  anointed  the  youthful  David  to 
occupy  his  place.  Saul  was  seized  with  a  melancholy  derange 
ment  of  intellect.  David,  wlio  was  his  son-in-law,  won  the  af- 
fections of  the  powerful  tribe  of  Judah ;  but  while  Saul  lived, 
he  continued  in  hig  allegiance,  though  his  sovereign  sought  his 
life.   At  length,  Saul  and  his  elder  and  more  worthy  sons  fell  10.v. 
in  battle  against  the  Philistines,  and  the  tribe  of  Judah  called 
their  young  hero  to  the  vacant  throne.     The  other  tribes  ad- 
hered during  seven  years  to  the  remaining  son  of  Saul.    His 
death,  by  the  hands  of  assassins,  gave  all  Israel  to  David.         '*^^ 

David  was  the  model  of  an  Oriental  prince,  handsome  in  his 
person,  valiant,  mild,  just,  and  generous,  humble  before  his 
God,  and  zealous  in  his  honor,  a  lover  of  music  and  poetry, 
himself  a  poet.  Successful  in  war,  he  reduced  beneath  his 
sceptre  all  the  countries  from  the  borders  of  Egypt  to  the 
mountains  whence  the  Euphrates  springs.  The  king  of  Tyre 
was  his  ally ;  he  had  ports  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  wealth  of 
commerce  flowed  during  his  reign  into  Israel.  He  fortified 
and  adorned  Jerusalem,  which  he  made  the  seat  of  govern- 
nent.  Glorious  prospects  of  extended  empire,  and  of  the 
liffusion  of  the  pure  religion  of  Israel,  and  of  happy  times, 
floated  before  the  mind  of  the  prophet-king. 

The  kingdom  of  Israel  was  iiereditary ;  but  the  monarch 
might  choose  his  successor  among  his  sons.  Solomon,  sup- 
ported by  Nathan,  the  great  prophet  of  those  days,  and  by 
the  affection  of  his  father,  was  nominated  to  succeed.  The 
qualities  of  a  magnificent  Eastern  monarch  met  in  the  son  of 
David.  He,  too,  was  a  poet;  his  taste  was  great  and  splendid  ; 
he  summoned  artists  from  Tyre  (for  Israel  had  none,)  and, 
with  the  collected  treasure  of  his  father,  erected  at  Jerusa- 
lem a  stately  temple  to  the  God  of  Israel.  He  first  gave  the 
nation  a  queen,  in  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  for 
whom  he  built  a  particular  palace.  He  brought  horses  and 
chariots  out  of  Egypt  to  increase  the  strength  and  the  glory 
of  his  empire.  Trade  and  commerce  deeply  engaged  the 
thoughts  of  this  politic  prince:  with  the  Tyrians.  his  subjects 
visited  the  ports  of  India  and  eastern  Africa:  he  built  tli«' 
4 


.^S  mSTOET  OP  THE  WORTB.  PART  I 

city  of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra  in  the  desert,  six  days' journey 
from  Babylon,  and  one  from  the  Euphrates — a  point  of  union 
for  the  traders  of  various  nations.  Wealth  of  every  kind 
flowed  in  upon  Jerusalem;  but  it  alone  derived  advantage 
from  the  splendor  of  the  monarch:  the  rest  of  Israel  was 
heavily  taxed. 

On  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  tribes  called  upon  his  son  to 

B.  c.  reduce  their  burdens :  he  haughtily  refused,  and  ten  of  the 

3'75.  tribes  revolted  and  chose  another  king.  An  apparently  wise 
a  really  false,  policy,  made  the  kings  of  Israel  set  up  the  sym- 
bolical mode  of  worship  practised  in  Egypt.  Judah,  too, 
wavered  in  her  allegiance  to  Jehovah.  A  succession  of  bold, 
honest,  inspired  prophets,  reproved,  warned,  encouraged  the 
kindred  nations,  and  a  return  to  the  service  of  the  true  God 
was  always  rewarded  by  victory  and  better  times.  At  length 

721.  the  ten  tribes,  by  tlieir  vices  and  idolatry,  lost  the  divine  pro- 
tection :  they  were  conquered  and  carried  out  of  their  own 
country  by  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  their  land  given  to 
strangers.  A  similar  fate  befell  the  kingdom  of  Judah :  the 
house  of  David  declined,  and  the  king  of  Babylon,  Nebuchad- 

585.  nezzar,  carried  away  the  people  to  Babylonia.  On  the  fall  of 
that  state,  seventy  years  afterwards,  Cyrus  king  of  Persia 
allowed  to  return  to  their  own  land  a  people  whose  faith  bore 
some  resemblance  to  the  simple  religion  of  the  Persians,  and 
whose  country  secured  him  an  easy  access  to  Egypt.  Restored 
to  their  country,  the  Israelites,  now  called  Jews,  became  as 
distinguished  for  their  obstinate  attachment  to  their  law  as 
they  had  been  before  for  their  facility  to  desert  it.  But  the 
purity  and  simplicity  of  their  faith  were  gone;  they  now 
mingled  with  it  various  dogmas  which  they  had  learned 
during  their  captivity.  The  schools  of  the  prophets,  whence 
in  the  old  times  had  emanated  such  lofty  inspiration,  simple 
piety,  and  pure  morals,  were  at  an  end ;  sects  sprang  up 
among  them,  and  the  haughty,  subtle,  trifle-loving  Pharisees, 
the  wordly-minded  Sadducees,  and  the  simple,  contemplative 
Essenes,  misunderstood  and  misinterpreted  the  pure  ennobling 
precepts  of  the  Mosaic  law. 

Medes  and  Persians. 

In  the  west  of  Asia  the  ancient  sacerdotal  constitutions  had 
been  now  almost  wholly  abolished.  To  them  succeeded  des- 
potism ;  and  from  the  erection  of  the  first  great  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  monarchies  to  the  present  day,  the  same  appear- 
ance has  been  repeated  with  little  alteration.  One  people  has 
constantly  succeeded  another  in  the  dominion  over  the  lands 
between  the  Indus  and  the  Mediterranean.     So  long  as  it» 


CHAP.  II  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  39 

military  virtue  has  remained  unenervated  by  luxury  and 
pleasure,  it  has  retained  its  sway :  each  dynasty  has  sustained 
itself  till  it  sank  in  sloth,  and  a  bold  and  powerful  usurper 
tumbled  it  from  the  throne  for  his  own  descendants  to  un- 
dergo a  similar  destiny. 

The  Assyrian  power  flourished  and  ruled  over  Asia.  In  the 
country  south  of  the  Caspian,  named  Media,  the  people,  aa 
did  Israel  in  the  days  of  Samuel,  called  for  a  king ;  but  for  a 
judge,  not  a  warrior.  Dejoces,  distinguished  for  his  wisdom 
and  justice,  was  the  first  monarch :  his  grandson  Cyaxares 
was  allied  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  be- 
neath their  united  efforts,  Nineveh,  the  Assyrian  capital,  and 
with  it  the  power  of  the  empire,  fell.  At  this  period  the 
Scythians  spread  their  swarms  over  Lesser  Asia,  Iran,  Syria, 
and  even  Palestine.  The  king  of  Media  freed  Asia  from 
their  destructive  hordes.  In  Lesser  Asia  there  had  been 
hitherto  numerous  little  states,  attached  to  temples  of  dif- 
ferent gods ;  at  these  temples  were  held  fairs  and  markets, 
and  they  were  all  closely  connected  with  each  other.  At  the 
period  of  the  Scythian  invasion  these  states  were  dissolved, 
and  the  kingdoms  of  Cilicia,  Phrygia,  and  Lydia,  were  formed 
from  them.  Of  the  history  of  the  two  former  we  are  totally 
ignorant.  The  two  first  dynasties  of  the  Lydians,  the  Atya-  b.  c 
des  and  the  Heracleides,  are  mythic :  the  history  of  Gyges,  730 
the  first  king  of  the  Mermnade  dynasty,  is  in  part  fable.  In 
his  time  began  the  connexion  between  the  Greeks  and 
Lydians,  who  differed  not  much  from  each  other  in  manners 
and  religion.  His  successor,  Ardys,  warred  with  the  Grecian 
colonies  planted  on  the  coast  of  Asia  before  there  was  any 
extensive  monarchy  in  Asia  Minor ;  and  the  Cimmerians,  a 
horde  from  the  Black  Sea,  poured  over  Lydia  and  Phrygia, 
and  possessed  them  during  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Sadyat- 
tes.  Alyattes,  the  next  king,  drove  the  Cimmerians  from 
Lesser  Asia  at  the  time  that  Cyaxares  expelled  the  Scythians 
from  his  dominions.  The  Lydian  monarch  ruled  Lesser  Asia, 
the  Median  from  Bactria  to  the  Tigris :  war  arose  between 
them,  the  king  of  Babylon  became  the  mediator,  and  a  mar- 
riage united  the  rival  princes. 

During  the  reign  of  Astyages,  the  successor  of  Cyaxares, 
the  tribes  of  the  Persians,  a  nation,  in  religion,  laws,  and 
manners,  closely  resembling  the  Medes,  and  who  dwelt, 
partly  stationary,  partly  nomadic,  in  the  lands  between  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  mountains  of  Bactria,  were  united  un- 
der Cyrus  their  native  prince,  and  gained  the  dominion  over 
the  Medes.     Cyrus  was  grandson  to  Astyages    but  his  early 


iO  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

history  is  related  differently  by  the  Grecian  histoiians.  Cy- 
rus led  to  war  the  mass  of  the  Persian  tribes,  united  with 
the  more  warlike  portion  of  the  Medes,  and  by  his  conquests 
founded  the  Persian  empire.  He  first  subdued  the  nations 
of  the  east,  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Sacians  and 
other  freebooting  hordes  of  Caucasus,  then  led  his  mingled 
host  against  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  who  had  reduced  the 
Greeks  of  the  coast,  who  so  long  had  bid  defiance  to  his  pre« 
decessors.  Croesus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  but 
treated  with  kindness  by  the  conqueror,  whose  friend  and 
adviser  he  ever  after  continued.  The  whole  of  Lesser  Asia, 
including  the  Grecian  cities,  submitted  to  Cyrus.  Babylonia 
had  been  In  alliance  with  Croesus :  its  capital  shared  the  fate 

J  c  of  that  of  Lydia.    Here  Cyrus  found  the  Jews  who  had  been 

5ft3.  transplanted  thither  when  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  plunder- 
ed. Similarity  of  religious  faith,  humanity,  and  policy,  co- 
operated to  procure  them  permission  to  return  and  rebuild 
their  city.  Cyrus,  it  is  possible,  now  meditated  the  conquest 
of  Egypt.  Judaea  was  the  key  to  that  country,  and  a  gratefii) 
people  might  favor  the  operations  of  the  Persian  troops.  The 
ancient  cities  of  Persia,  Pasagarda  and  Persepolis,  where  the 
treasures  and  chronicles  of  the  empire  were  kept,  and  the 
kings  crowned  and  interred,  were  considered  too  remote  to 
be  the  seat  of  so  extensive  an  empire  as  was  that  of  Persia. 
Babylon  was  well  adapted  for  that  purpose ;  but  a  Persian 
monarch  should  reside  in  Persia,  and  Cyrus  founded  Susa  on 
the  Persian  soil,  at  a  convenient  distance  from  Babylon.  The 

521  last  expedition  Cyrus  undertook  was  against  the  Scythians 
or  Turks,  and  in  an  engagement  with  their  tribes  he  lost  his 
life.  Cyrus  possessed  all  the  qualities  of  a  great  prince :  his 
memory  was  long  held  in  honor  throughout  the  East,  and  his 
virtues  drew  forth  the  praises  of  the  sages  of  Greece. 

Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses,  who  invaded 
and  conquered  Egypt,  aided  by  the  Phoenicians,  jealous  of  the 
favor  shown  by  tlie  last  Egyptian  kings  to  the  Greeks.  Cam 
byses  attempted  farther  conquests ;  but  his  troops  were  driven 
back  by  the  ^Ethiopians,  and  an  army  sent  to  take  possession 
of  the  oasis  of  Hammon  perished  in  the  sands  of  the  desert. 
He  died  by  a  wound  from  his  own  sword — a  divine  judgment, 
according  to  the  Egyptians,  for  violating  their  sacred  ox  Apis 
— as  he  was  about  to  return  to  Persia,  where  a  Magian  had, 
under  the  name  of  his  brother  Smerdis,  seized  on  the  throne. 

621.  A  conspiracy  of  seven  nobles  put  an  end  to  the  life  and  reign 
of  the  Magian,  and  Darius  Hystaspes,  one  of  their  number, 
related  to  the  royal  family,  was  made  king. 

Under  the  reign  of  Darius,  Persia  flourished,  religion  w»p 


CHAP.  II.  CENTRAL  AND  WESTERN  ASIA.  43 

reformed  and  purified,  ihe  empire  divided  into  a  certain  num- 
ber of  provinces,  and  fixed  imposts  established.  Babylon 
had  rebelled :  the  loyalty  and  treachery  of  Zopyrus,  a  Per- 
sian noble,  reduced  it  to  subjection.  The  Persian  governor 
of  Eg-ypt  attempted  to  conquer  the  Grecian  states  of  Barce 
and  Cyrene ;  but  Grecian  valor  daunted  the  troops  of  Persia. 
The  monarch  in  person  led  an  army  over  the  Hellespont 
against  the  Scythians ;  but  their  steppes  fought  for  them,  and 
he  only  conquered  Thrace.  Master  of  all  the  coast  cf  Les- 
ser Asia,  Darius  sought  to  bring  under  bis  sway  the  islands 
and  the  continent  of  Greece :  his  fleet  was  shattered,  and 
the  plain  of  Marathon  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  first  „  c 
Persian  host  that  trod  the  soil  of  Hellas.  He  was  preparing  490 
»nother  expedition  against  Greece :  but  family-feuds,  and  a 
rebellion  in  Eg'ypt,  occupied  his  thoughts,  and  death  finally  485 
surprised  him.  No  Persian  monarch,  save  the  great  Cjrrus, 
stands  on  a  line  with  Darius. 

Xerxes,  the  haughty  son  of  a  haughty  mother,  Atossa,  the 
daughter  of  Cyrus,  determined  to  wash  away  tlie  disgrace 
the  Persian  arms  had  sustained  in  Greece.  At  the  head  of 
countless  myriads,  drawn  from  all  the  provinces  of  his  em- 
pire, he  passed  the  Hellespont.  At  Salamis  he  witnessed  the 
destruction  of  his  fleet :  his  land  troops,  no  longer  supplied  480 
with  provisions,  perished  witli  want  and  disease.  The  mon- 
arch, leaving  a  portion  of  his  army  in  Bceotia  under  IMardo- 
nius,  fled  to  Susa,  and  abandoned  himself  to  pleasure.  The 
next  year  saw  at  Platjea  the  total  defeat  of  Mardonius,  and 
the  Grecian  fleet,  after  the  victory  at  Mycale,  sailing  in  tri- 
umph along  the  coast  of  Asia.  Cruelties  exercised  on  his 
nearest  relatives  disgraced  the  latter  days  of  Xerxes,  and  he  461 
perished,  assassinated  by  his  friends  and  guards,  Artabanus 
and  Spamitres.  The  assassins  accused  of  the  murder  Dari- 
us, the  eldest  son  of  the  king,  and  he  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  his  youngest  brother,  Artaxerxes,  who  mounted  the 
throne. 

Artaxerxes  soon  discovered  the  true  murderers  of  his 
fiither.  Artabanus  atoned  for  his  treason  with  his  life.  A 
rebellion  raised  by  his  sons  was  crushed  by  Megabyzus,  L*-^ 
brother-in-law  of  the  king,  who  also  defeated  an  elder  brother 
of  the  king,  who  was  governor  of  Bactria,  and  had  taken 
ftrms  to  assert  his  claims  to  the  throne.  Rebellion  still  raged 
in  Egypt :  an  army  sent  thither  by  Xerxes,  under  his  brotlier 
Achsemenes,  had  been  cut  to  pieces,  and  Megabyzus  was  now 
dispatched  to  reduce  that  country.  He  efltcted  his  object 
by  neg^"i*.'.ion;  but  the  obedience  of  the  Egyptians  waa  not 
durable,  and  during  100  years  we  read  of  kings  of  Egypt 


44  HIiSTORY  OP  THH  WORLl>.  PART  I 

This  prince,  eurnamed  Long-armed^  was  a  monarch  who  pos- 

K  a  sessed  many  great  and  amiable  qualities     He  died  after  a 

424   long  reign,  and  the  history  of  Persia  presents  from  this,  or 

rather  an  earlier  period,  the  usual  scenes  of  cruelty,  treachery, 

fraud,    and    faction,    characteristic    of  oriental   despotism. 

Brothers  murdered   by  brothers,   queens  exercising  every 

species  of  cruelty  on  their  rivals  and  their  friends,  eunuchv 

disposing  of  the  throne,  assassinating  their  sovereign,  ant 

perishing  in  their  turn  by  justice  or  by  similar  treachery,  are 

ordinary  events,  till,  in  the  reign  of  the  virtuous  and  ill-fated 

331.  Darius  Codomanus,  the  Persian  colossus  was  thrown  to  the 

earth  by  the  arms  of  Greece. 

For  when  Artaxer.xes  II.  mounted  the  throne,  his  youngci 
brother  Cyrus,  who  was  governor  of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and 
Ionia,  under  pretence  of  quelling  some  disturbances  in  Cilicia 
and  Pisidia,  collected  an  army  in  which  were  10,000  Greeks, 
4i>l  and  with  it  marched  against  him.  The  armies  met  at  Cu- 
naxa,  in  the  neigliborhood  of  Babylon,  and  victory  declared 
for  Artaxerxes,  as  Cyrus  fell  in  the  action.  The  Greeks  had 
on  their  side  been  conquerors :  they  were  now  deserted  l»^ 
their  Persian  confederates,  deprived  of  their  leaders  by 
treachery ;  yet  without  guides,  they,  through  the  midst  of  a 
hostile  nation,  barbarous  tribes,  mountains,  defiles,  and  deserts, 
reached  with  trifling  loss  the  coast  of  the  Euxine.  This,  when 
known  in  Greece,  betrayed  the  internal  weakness  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  Agesilaus  the  great  Spartan  had  collected  a 
Grecian  army  in  Lesser  Asia,  the  ax  was  apparently  laid  to 
the  root  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  when  Persian  gold  effect- 
ed what  Persian  steel  could  not :  bribery  armed  a  confederacy 
in  Greece  against  Sparta,  Agesilaus  was  recalled  to  the  de- 
fence of  his  country,  and  tlie  fate  of  Persia  was  delayed  foj 
a  season. 

The  Persian  dominions  at  the  period  of  their  greatest  ex- 
tent embraced  India  west  of  the  Indus,  and  all  the  countrj 
between  it  and  the  Mediterranean,  Lesser  Asia,  Thract, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt:  Arabia  paid  tribute;  the  mountain- 
tribes  of  Caucasus  and  the  Turkish  borderers  were  number- 
ed among  its  subjects.  Yet,  as  the  instance  of  the  Cardu 
chians  or  Koords  proves,  there  were  many  tribes  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  empire  who  yielded  but  a  nominal  submission, 
maintaining  nearly  total  independence.  Under  Cyrus,  each 
subject  state  was  left  its  own  form  of  government,  only  bound 
to  acknowledge  the  sovereign  by  tribute  and  attendance  in 
war.  Darius,  by  attempting  to  establish  an  uniformity  of  ad- 
ministration tnroughout  his  dominions,  deprived  his  subjects 
of  all  love  of  independence.     They  ate,  drank,  plowed,  and 


CHAP.  III.  GREECE  4o 

wove,  heedless  of  who  nJed  over  them ;  were  dragged  at 
times  away  from  their  homes  to  share  in  wars  they  t(X)k  no 
Jitercst  in ;  passive  machines,  they  paid  their  taxes,  or  carried 
irms;  like  a  flock  of  sheep  on  fertile  pastures,  they  fed 
leedlessly  till  they  became  the  prey  of  wolves.  They  bowed 
as  submissively  beneath  the  sceptre  of  the  Macedonian  hero 
and  his  successorB  as  under  that  of  the  descendants  of  ('yrus 


CHAP.  IIL 

QREECK. 

Early  State  of  Greece. 

I.MPENETRABLE  obscurity  covors  the  early  times  of  Greece 
Were  we  to  believe  ancient  tradition,  corroborated  by  the 
testimony  of  geology,  a  country  named  Lectonia  once  cov- 
ered a  great  portion  of  the  space  now  occupied  by  the  JFjgcun 
Sea.  An  extensive  sea  was  spread  over  the  plain  of  Scvthia, 
which  burst  the  Bosporus,  and  poured  into  the  Mediterranean, 
pubmerging  Lectonia,  and  overflowing  a  large  part  of  Greece, 
tience  this  country  was  long  under  the  dominion  of  water. 
The  tradition  of  the  fertile  vales  of  Thcssaly  and  Bffotia 
having  been  lakes,  was  long  preserved. 

Buildings  of  gigantic  dimensions  still  to  be  seen  in  Greece, 
testify  for  its  having  been  in  a  very  remote  period  tlie  seat  of 
a  civilized  race.  These  ruins  are  long  anterior  to  hi.'sfory 
they  are  mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems.  Tradition  a?- 
cribes  the  erection  of  them  to  the  Cyclopes,  possibly  the  name 
of  that  ancient  people.  It  is  probable  these  aboriginal  colo- 
nists were,  like  the  nations  of  Asia,  under  the  government 
of  a  sacerdotal  order, — this  alone  raises  such  works.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  of  their  being  of  the  Cauca.sian  race.  They 
entered  Greece  from  Thrace,  and  spread  over  the  whole 
country:  for  their  chief  remains  are  in  Peloponnesus.  Possi- 
bly tliey  were  of  the  same  race  with  the  aborigines  of  Italy. 
To  these  succeeded  the  Pelasgians,  a  numerous  tribe,  whc 
overran  Greece,  Italy,  the  islands,  and  a  part  of  Lesser  Asia; 
they,  too,  came  from  Thrace.  Agriculture  was  their  chief 
employment :  the  arts  of  peace  flourished  among  them.  The 
eligion  of  Greece  was  chiefly  Pcla.sgian.  The  thickly-peopled 
iigions  of  Thrace  still  sent  firth  its  tribes.  The  Achrrans, 
Jke  race  who  fought  at  Troy,  next  succeeded,  and  overcame 
Ihe  Pelasgians.     Legends  of  t!ie  Lapithin  ard  CentnnrH,  if 


43  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOELD.  PART  I 

credit  is  to  be  given  to  them,  may  relate  to  contests  between 
tJie  Achaean  and  Pelasgian  races,  for  the  possession  of  Thes- 
saly. 

Colonies,  it  is  said,  came  from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Phry- 
j^ia,  and  civilized  the  barbarous,  mast-eating  savages  who 
roamed  the  wilds  of  Greece.  Danaus,  an  Egyptian,  ruled  at 
Argos ;  Cecrops,  from  Sais,  at  Athens ;  Pelops,  the  Phrygian, 
gave  name  to  Peloponnesus ;  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician,  founded 
Thebes.  Little  reliance  is  to  be  placed  on  these  accounts 
there  is  no  evidence  of  any  race  of  the  inhabitants  of  Greece 
having  been  in  the  savage  state.  The  Phoenicians,  undoubt 
edly,  early  visited  the  coasts  of  Greece,  and  a  colony  did,  per- 
naps,  settle  there ;  yet  it  is  unusual  for  a  maritime  people  to 
go  so  far  inland  as  Thebes.  With  respect  to  the  Egyptian 
colonies,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  artful  and  vain-glorious 
priests  of  Sais,  and  of  other  towns  of  Egypt,  imposed  their 
fables  on  the  credulous  Greeks,  who  first  visited  that  country. 

The  Achaean  period  is  the  heroic  age  of  Greece :  then 
flourished,  or  are  said  to  have  flourished,  the  mythic  heroes 
Hercules,  Theseus,  Jason,  and  others:  then  were  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition,  the  wars  of  Thebes,  and  that  of  Troy,  eter- 
nized by  the  verses  of  Homer.  As  a  real  historic  event,  the 
chief  that  this  period  offers  is,  the  erection  of  a  kingdom  by 
Minos  in  Crete,  three  generations  before  the  Trojan  war 
This  monarch,  at  once  king,  prophet,  and  lawgiver,  collected 
the  various  tribes  of  Crete  into  one  state,  established  a  ma- 
rine, conquered  the  piratic  Carians,  who  swarmed  in  the 
/Egean,  and  reduced  the  isles  beneath  his  power. 

Tlie  Achaeans,  like  the  Pelasgians,  were  devoted  to  agri 
culture  and  navigation.  Their  government  was  aristocrato 
monarchic :  they  possessed  numerous  slaves,  acquired  by  wa 
or  by  purchase,  who  performed  all  servile  offices.  Their  chief 
amusements,  like  those  of  the  Germans  and  Scandinavians, 
were  gymnastic  exercises,  and  at  banquets  listening  to  the 
songs  of  bards,  who  chanted  the  deeds  of  living  or  departed 
heroes.  Manners,  language,  religion,  were  the  same  in  all 
the  states :  even  between  the  Achaeans  and  the  Trojans  no 
difference  is  to  be  perceived  on  these  points.  The  Pythian 
and  Dodonean  oracles  tended  to  keep  up  union :  no  traces  of 
castes  appear :  the  princes  and  fathers  of  families  were  priests. 
The  monarch  was  distinguished  chiefly  by  his  personal  quali- 
ties: he  had  the  command  in  war,  a  la/ger  share  of  the  booty, 
orecedence,  and  a  portion  of  land  as&.gned  him.  The  nobles 
were  distinguished  as  much  by  their  powers  of  mind  and  body 
98  bv  birth.     The  peojile  had  a  voice  in  matters  of  war  and 


CHAP.  Ill  GREECE.  49 

peace :  no  law  could  be  made  without  their  approbation.  The 
elements  of  the  future  democracy  were  there. 

The  religion  of  Greece  was  the  worship  of  deities  presiding 
over  the  various  parts  of  nature  and  powers  of  mind.  Under 
the  names  of  Zeus,  Poseidon,  Apollo,  Hera,  Pallas,  &c.  nameb 
mostly  of  unknown  origin,  these  deities  were  honored  by 
temples,  sacrifices,  processions:  oracles  were  believed  to  an- 
nounce their  will  and  the  future.  This  system  of  religion 
was  Grecian,  and  unborrowed.  The  Phoinicians  may  have 
introduced  some  new  deities;  and,  when  an  intercourse  was 
opened  with  Egypt,  mysteries  and  new  rites  and  dogmas  were 
jnported  from  that  country. 

Dorian  Migration. 
The  Acha>an  race  acknowledged  a  supremo  head  m  the 
king  of  MycentB.  After  the  Trojan  war,  the  bonds  that 
united  them  were  loosed.  A  time  of  disturbance  and  revo- 
lution came:  the  Dorians,  a  brave  and  hardy  race,  left 
their  abodes  in  the  mountains,  and  came  down  on  Greece. 
This  movement  was  followed  by  great  changes:  numerous 
emigrations  took  place :  Grecian  colonies  covered  the  coasts 
of  southern  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Lesser  Asia.  The  Dorians,  it 
is  said,  were  led  by  the  descendants  of  Hercules  to  make  good 
their  claim  to  the  throne  of  Argos,  of  which  their  ancestor 
had  been  deprived ;  and  the  Dorian  immigration  is  called  the 
Return  of  the  Heracleides.  But  Hercules  is  a  mythic  per- 
sonage,— one  who,  it  is  probable,  never  had  a  real  existence ; 
and  the  Dorians  were,  doubtless,  moved  by  other  causes.  They 
speedily  overran  the  Peloponnesus:  her  mountains  defended 
Arcadia:  Achsea  alone  remained  to  the  Atreidfe:  Laconia, 
Messenia,  and  Argolis  became  the  property  of  the  Dorians : 
yEgina  and  the  neighboring  islands  fell  to  tlicni,  and  a  portion 
of  them  settled  in  Crete.  That  branch  of  the  Achasans  named 
[(mians,  retreated  to  Attica,  and  joined  its  inhabitants,  who 
A  ere  of  the  same  race ;  being  pressed  for  room,  a  portion  of 
these  migrated  to  the  banks  of  the  Kermus,  in  Lesser  Asia, 
and  the  adjacent  isles.  Peloponnesians,  named  j^^olians,  had 
previously  settled  on  the  coast  from  Cyzicus  to  the  Hermu». 
No  great  kingdom  existed  at  that  time  in  Lesser  Asia :  the 
coaats  had  been  possessed  by  pirate  states  of  Leleges  and 
Carians.  The  people  of  the  interior  favored  the  settlement 
of  the  lonians;  a  race  of  mild  manners,  less  addicted  to  war 
than  to  trade  and  manufactures.  The  conquering  Doriani 
afterwards  came  from  Crete,  and  took  from  the  Carians  Cni- 
dus,  Halicamassus,  and  Rhodes.  Thus  were  formed  the  Gre- 
6 


60  mSTOBY  OJ  THB  WORLD.  PART  1 

cian  cities  of  Lesser  Asia,  where  poetry,  philosophy,  arts,  and 
science  bloomed  ere  they  attained  any  height  in  Greece. 

Sparta. 

The  Dorian  state  of  Laconia  was,  at  this  period,  the  great- 
est state  of  Greece.  Two  kings  were  at  the  head  of  it ;  under 
them  stood  the  Dorian  nobility,  the  Spartans ;  then  the  Pe. 
rioeci  or  Laconians,  and,  lastly,  the  Helots,  or  descendants  ol 
the  conquered  people,  a  body  of  oppressed,  ill-used  serfs. 
Disputes  and  unfixed  relations  among  these  orders  made  the 
want  of  a  settled  system  of  legislation  apparent.  Lycurgus^ 
brother  to  one  of  the  kings,  and  guardian  of  his  infant  heir, 
saw  this  necessity,  and  resolved  to  remedy  it.  He  went  to 
Crete,  whose  constitution,  originally  established  by  Minos, 
and  renewed  by  the  Dorians,  was  then  in  the  highest  repute ; 
made  himself  acquainted  with  its  institutions,  and  formed  a 
code  of  laws,  such  as  he  deemed  fitted  for  Sparta.  The  Del- 
phic oracle,  so  highly  venerated  by  all  of  Dorian  race,  ap- 
plauded his  project,  and  pronounced  him  inspired. 

The  object  of  all  Dorian  legislation  was  the  maintenance 
of  a  martial  character  in  the  upper  and  dominant  classea  To 
crush  and  grind  down  the  ill-fated  serfs,  and  give  leisure  for 
the  practice  of  military  exercises  to  the  warlike  race  of  the 
conquerors,  was  the  aim  of  both  Cretan  and  Spartan  legisla- 
tion. In  Crete  there  were  but  two  orders,  the  lords  and  the 
serfs :  in  Laconia  there  were  three ;  the  Perioeci  or  Laconi- 
ans, whether  Dorians  of  mingled  marriages,  or  Achseans  who 
had  been  left  some  privileges  by  the  conquerors,  forming  a 
link  between  the  two  former.  Lycurgus  divided  the  lands 
of  Laconia  into  39,000  lots ;  9000  large  ones  for  the  Spartans, 
and  30,000  smaller  for  the  Perioeci,  all  to  be  tilled  for  them 
by  the  miserable  serfs.  The  government  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Spartans  alone.  Both  Spartans  and  Perioeci  were  alike 
engaged  in  unceasing  military  exercises.  By  a  fatal  error  in 
legislation,  the  number  of  the  Spartan  families  was  closed, 
and  in  default  of  male  issue,  daughters  could  inherit  landed 
property ;  hence  there  arose  an  inequality  among  the  leading 
families,  and  a  pernicious  oligarchy,  where  women  had  pow- 
erful influence.  At  the  time  of  the  Theban  war,  the  greater 
part  of  the  land  was  in  the  hands  of  females. 

The  Spartan  government  consisted  of  the  two  kings  of  the 
race  of  Hercules,  and  a  senate  of  twenty-eight  old  men  (the 
Gerusia,)  chosen  by  the  people.     The  kings  were  leaders  in 


OIIAP.  IIL  GREECE.  61 

war,  and  out  of  Laconia  their  power  was  unlimited.  The  peo- 
ple (i.  e.  the  Spartans)  were  assembled  every  full  moon  to 
decide  on  measures  proposed  by  the  senate,  which  they  could 
only  accept  or  reject ;  they  decided  on  all  crimes  against  the 
state,  on  the  succession  of  the  kings,  and  the  election  and 
dismissal  of  magistrates.  If  peace  or  war  was  the  question, 
the  Perioeci  were  called  to  the  council,  as  they  were  to  share 
in  the  danger.  The  Helots  had  no  part  in  legislation,  or  even 
in  religious  festivals. 

As  a  counterpoise  to  the  power  of  the  kings,  a  magistracy, 
the  Ephorate,  was  introduced  in  the  time  of  king  Thcopom- 
pus.  The  Ephori  were  five  men  selected  from  the  people 
(the  Spartans,)  without  regard  to  age.  They  alone  were  al- 
ways in  connexion  with  the  people ;  they  had  the  inspection 
of  aFx  magistrates,  were  present  at  every  transaction,  always 
attended  the  kings,  directed  all  foreign  affairs,  accused  kings 
and  magistrates  before  the  people,  where  they  were  them- 
selves both  judges  and  accusers.  At  length  they  completely 
crushed  all  other  power,  and  became  the  tyrants  of  the  state. 

The  greatest  rigor  of  manners  was  enjoined  by  Lycurgus. 
He  established  syssitia,  or  public  meals,  at  which  all  the  male 
part  of  the  citizens  ate  together.  The  most  implicit  obedi- 
ence and  regard  to  age  was  impressed  on  the  minds  of  youth ; 
the  most  inflexible  endurance  of  pain  inculcated ;  most  things, 
even  slaves,  horses,  and  dogs,  were  possessed  in  common. 
The  chase  was  their  favorite  enjoyment;  every  species  of 
trade  was  prohibited ;  money  was  huge  masses  of  iron. 

The  natural  result  of  such  an  education  was  a  sternness 
of  cnaracter,  a  pride  and  haughtiness,  and  love  of  command. 
While  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  continued  in  vigor,  the 
Spartan  character  was  distinguished  for  the  sterner  virtues; 
when  it  relaxed,  profligacy  and  corruption  of  every  species 
roke  m  amongst  them. 

Athens. 

Athens  did  not  rise  into  importance  till  long  after  Sparta. 
Argos  was  a  large  city ;  and  Corinth,  the  entrepot  of  trade 
Oetween  the  Mgea.n  and  Ionian  seas,  was  abounding  in  wealth 
before  Athens  became  of  any  consequence ;  but  they  and  the 
other  states  of  Peloponnesus  offer  at  this  period  little  to  at- 
tract attention. 

The  tale  of  the  Egyptian  Cecrops  coming  to  Attica  w  a 
manifest  fable.  Attica  had  numerous  petty  princes,  each 
ruling  his  own  village.  A  prince,  named  Tlioseus,  is  said  Xn 
have  united  severaf  of  these  little  states  into  one,  and  col- 
lected the  people  to  Athens.     But  his  power  could  not  have 


52  flISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  eh,  1 1 

been  great,  as  Mnestheus,  the  second  from  him,  led  but  forty 
ships  to  Troy.  At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  irruption  into  Pelo- 
ponnesus, the  family  of  Theseus  lost  the  throne ;  and  Melan- 
thiua,  of  Ach^an  race,  fn^n  Messenia,  coming  to  Athens,  ob- 
tnined  the  chief  direction  of  affairs:  his  son  Codrus  drove  back 
the  Dorians,  and  forced  them  to  be  content  with  Megara,  at 
that  time  united  with  Attica.  The  legend  says,  Codrus  of- 
fered himself  up  for  his  country,  and  that  the  royal  dignity 
was  abolished  out  of  honor  to  him.  The  republican  spirit  had 
however,  from  various  causes,  been  on  the  increase  at  Athens. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  olympiad,*  a  regular  aristocracy 
was  established :  the  chief  magistrate  was  called  Archon,  and 
his  office  was  annual.  A  farther  change  augmented  the  num 
her  of  archons  to  nine,  three  with  peculiar  rank  and  titles, 
six  as  presidents  of  courts  of  justice.  This  was  the  foundation 
of  a  rigid  aristocracy ;  but  as  the  people  had  all  along  retained 
the  right  of  assembling  to  pass  laws,  it  was  in  a  condition, 
whenever  it  could  get  a  leader,  to  assert  its  rights  and  better 
its  condition. 

But  the  aristocracy,  being  in  possession  of  the  administra 
tion  of  justice,  and  being  also  invested  with  the  sacerdotal 
dignities,  the  people  had  no  sure  place  of  refuge  when  ao-- 
«.  c  grieved.  Matters  fell,  therefore,  into  turmoil  and  confusion. 
Draco,  in  the  first  year  of  the  thirty-ninth  olympiad,  sought  a 
remedy  in  the  revival  of  an  ancient  species  of  divine  law;  but 
its  general  maxims  were  too  rigid  and  severe.  It  suited  not 
the  spirit  of  the  times,  and  became  generally  detested.  The 
internal  troubles  still  continued ;  and  twelve  years  afterwards, 
in  a  struggle  between  two  aristocratic  parties,  Cylon,  the 
head  of  one  of  them,  attempted,  by  the  aid  of  the  tyrant  or 
ruler  of  Megara,  to  raise  himself  to  similar  power  in  Athens. 
His  project  failed ;  the  nobles,  headed  by  the  AlcmjEonides, 
the  chiefs  of  the  rival  faction,  summoned  their  vassals  from 
the  country,  and  besieged  Cylon  and  his  adherents  in  the 
citadel.  He  and  his  brother  escaped ;  but  his  followers  were 
dragged  from  the  altars  and  slam.  This  offence  brought  down 
vengeance  from  the  gods;  and  though  the  chief  agents  were 
exiled,  defeat  and  sickness  visited  the  city.  A  prophet,  Epi- 
nienides  of  Crete,  was  summoned  to  purify  and  atone  for  the 
city.  He  regulated  the  religious  worship,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  system  of  legislation  projected  by  his  friend 
Solon. 

In  the  third  year  of  the  46th  olympiad,  Solon  being  archon, 
the  land-owners  and  citizens,  debtors  and  creditors,  were  in 

♦  The  olympiads  were  periods  of  four  years.    The  first  be/jan  l«.  C.  TTfi. 


f)-.i3 


UHAP.  III.  GREECE.  55 

open  feud,  Solon  was  called  upon  to  legislate.  His  firel 
step  was  to  arrange  matters  between  debtor  and  creditor, 
which  he  accomplished  by  altering  tlie  standard,  and  lower- 
bg  the  rate  of  interest  He  then  deprived  the  nobility  of 
a  portion  of  their  former  power,  by  dividing  all  the  people 
into  four  classes  regulated  by  property :  thus,  while  he  intro- 
duced a  democracy,  founding  a  new  aristocracy.  The  nobil- 
ity, as  possessors  of  tlie  largest  properties,  as  the  sole  mem- 
bers of  the  court  of  Areopagus,  as  possessed  of  the  priesthoods, 
and  directors  of  religious  ceremonies,  still  retained  an  ample 
degree  of  influence.  By  the  establishment  of  the  Council  of 
Four  Hundred,  an  annually  rotating  college,  he  at  once  gave 
so  many  families  an  interest  in  the  new  order  of  things,  that 
there  remained  no  chance  of  its  being  totally  subverted.  He 
finally  made  all  the  people  swear  not  to  make  any  alteration 
during  the  next  ten  years,  deeming  that  period  sufficiently 
long  for  habituating  them  to  the  new  constitution. 

Solon's  laws  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  internal  broils.  The 
nobility,  being  the  owners  of  tlie  largest  properties,  were  in 
the  first  classes,  and  the  contests  for  honors  and  dignities 
raged  among  them  as  hotly  as  ever.  The  lowest  class,  the 
Thetes,  who  were  excluded  from  office,  and  were  not  liable 
to  taxes,  or  to  serve  in  heavy  armor,  formed  in  the  popular 
assembly  a  portion  of  the  sovereignty,  and  sat  in  courts  of 
justice.  They  were  a  ready  weapon  for  any  one  who  knew 
how  to  employ  it.  The  old  local  parties  of  the  Paralians  and 
the  PedifBans  also  still  subsisted.  Solon  had  travelled  to  the 
East:  Megacles,  the  chief  of  the  Alcmeeonides,  who  had  now 
returned  to  Athens,  was  at  the  head  of  the  Paralians ;  Ly- 
curgus  was  the  leader  of  the  Pediteans,  or  country  gentle- 
men ;  Peisistratus,  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  kings,  sought 
the  favor  of  the  lower  class.  He  obtained  by  their  means  the 
supreme  power:  his  rivals,  however,  united  and  expelled 
him.  Megacles  then  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and 
restored  him,  but  again  drove  him  away.  After  eleven  years' 
absence,  Peisistratus  returned  at  the  head  of  an  army,  ana 
governed  Athens  till  his  death.  His  sway  was  mild  and  be- 
nsficent;  the  laws  of  Solon  were  observed,  and  Athens  flour- 
ished under  hun.  His  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  who 
succeeded  him,  trod  in  his  steps ;  but  an  act  of  private  re- 
venge deprived  the  latter  of  life,  and  conferred  an  unmerited 
immortality  on  the  assassins,  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton. 
Hippias  grew  suspicious  and  cruel.  The  Alcmceonides  had 
devoted  their  wealth  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  of  Delphi: 
the  priestess,  gained  by  them,  incessantly  commanded  the 
Spartans  to  restore  liberty  to  Athens.     The  latter,  gla<]  of 


56  mSIORY  0*  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

B.  c.  the  pretext,  obeyed  the  oracle.  Hippias  abandoned  Attica, 
510.  and  retired  to  his  estates  in  Asia.  Solon's  constitution  re- 
mained ;  but  the  heads  of  parties,  to  obtain  influence,  attached 
themselves  to  the  aristocracy  or  the  people.  Isagoras,  of  an- 
cient lineage,  headed  the  former,  favored  by  the  Spartana 
Cleisthenes,  the  AlcmEeonide,  sought  to  win  the  people. 
When  archon,  four  years  after  the  banishment  of  Hippias,  he 
shook  the  whole  Solonian  constitution,  and  opened  the  way 
to  all  the  future  evils  of  unbridled  democracy,  by  dividing  the 
four  original  tribes  into  ten,  and  altering  in  like  manner  all 
the  inferior  divisions,  and  increasing  the  senate  to  500  mem- 
bers, 50  from  each  of  the  new  tribes.  Prompted  by  Isagoras, 
the  Spartans  sent  a  herald  to  demand  the  banishment  of  those 
stained  with  the  blood  of  Cylon's  adherents.  Cleisthenes  waa 
obliged  to  yield  and  retire.  The  Spartans  attempted  to  re- 
store the  old  aristocracy ;  the  Athenians  sought  aid  of  Per- 
sia; Cleomenes,  the  Spartan,  marched  an  army  against 
Athens ;  but  his  allies  abandoned  him,  and  his  colleague,  De- 
maratus,  refusing  to  join  in  his  project,  the  Spartans  retired, 
and  the  democracy  of  Athens  was  fully  established. 


CHAP.  IV. 

GRE£C£  TO    H£A   SUBVERSION    Br  THS   UACEDONIANIi 

The  Persian  War. 

Greece  and  Persia  now  first  came  into  conflict.  Cyrus  had 
conquered  the  Grecian  colonies  in  Lesser  Asia :  the  love  of 
liberty  however  was  not  extinct,  and  the  secret  advice  of 
Histiseus,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  whom  Darius  detained  at  hia 
court,  threw  the  Ionian  cities  into  revolt.  They  called  on 
Athens,  as  head  of  the  Ionian  race,  to  assist  them.  The  aid 
was  granted,  and  the  anger  of  the  Great  Kmg  tliereby  in- 
curred. Darius  meditated  the  conquest  of  Greece  and  the 
islands ;  he  sent  his  ambassadors  to  demand  homage :  many 
islands,  especiaRy  ^Egina,  delivered  earth  and  water.  A 
large  army,  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  was  sent  to  subdue 
190  the  refractory.  The  plain  of  Marathon  witnessed  the  defeat 
of  the  Persian  vassals  by  9000  Athenians  and  1000  Platseans. 
Datia  and  Artaphernes  returned  to  Asia  with  the  discomfited 
host 

The  Athenians  resolved  to  punish  those  who  had  submit- 
ted to  the  Persian  king.  Their  first  enterprise  against  Naxos, 


CHAP.  rV.  GREECE.  57 

under  Miltiadcs,  foiled ;  the  general  was  condemned  to  pay 
the  costs,  and  being  unable,  was  treated  according  to  Athe- 
nian law,  like  any  other  citizen.  Aristides,  Xanthippus,  and 
Themistocles,  took  the  place  of  Miltiades,  and  by  employing 
the  proper  methods  of  managing  a  democracy,  raised  Athens 
from  a  petty  town  to  the  rank  of  a  leading  state.  The  threat- 
ening war  of  the  Persians  showed  that  Athens'  only  hope  lay 
in  the  augmentation  of  her  navy.  Themistocles  awaked  the 
jncient  grudge  against  iEgina ;  and  the  produce  of  the  sil- 
ver mines  of  Laurium,  which  had  been  hitherto  divided 
among  the  citizens,  was  appropriated  to  the  building  of  a 
fleet.  Athens  and  ^Egina  were  in  conflict  when  intelligence 
arrived  of  the  immense  preparations  of  Xerxes,  the  Persian 
king,  for  the  conquest  of  Greece.  All  enmity  ceased ;  a  bond 
for  common  defence  was  established  among  the  Grecian  j.  c 
states.  In  the  spring  of  the  first  year  of  the  75th  oljonpiad,  480 
Xerxes  led,  as  is  said,  two  millions  of  Asiatics  over  the  Hel- 
lespont. A  fleet  of  1200  vessels  attended  the  march  of  this 
huge  multitude.  The  progress  of  the  Persian  monarch  was 
unimpeded  till  he  reached  the  ever-memorable  pass  of  Ther- 
mopyljB,  leading  from  Thessaly  into  Proper  Greece.  The 
narrow  passage  between  the  mountain  and  the  sea  was  guard- 
ed by  a  resolute  band  of  Spartans,  Phocians.  Locrians,  and 
others,  under  the  command  of  Leonidas,  the  Spartan  king. 
Division  after  division  of  the  Persian  army  were  repulsed 
with  immense  loss  in  attempting  to  force  their  way.  At 
length,  a  traitor  revealed  another  passage  through  the  moun- 
tains: Leonidas,  on  hearing  it,  dismissed  his  allies,  and,  at 
the  head  of  his  Spartans,  attacked  the  Persian  multitudes, 
and  fell,  covered  with  wounds,  amidst  the  heaps  of  slain. 
Monuments,  song,  and  story,  have  conspired  to  exalt  thia 
deed  of  heroes.  Meantime,  the  Persian  fleet  had  suffered 
from  a  storm,  and  had  been  roughly  handled  by  the  Greeks 
in  an  engagement  off"  the  promontory  of  Artemisium. 

The  Persian  army  marched  on  to  Attica,  took  and  burne<l 
Athens.  The  Grecian  fleet  lay  in  the  strait  between  Salamis 
and  the  continent ;  the  Persian  imprudently  attacked  them 
there:  a  total  defeat  was  the  consequence.  Xerxes,  who 
had  from  the  land  beheld  the  destruction  of  his  fleet,  hasted 
back  to  Asia,  leaving  an  army  of  300,000  under  Mardonius. 
The  following  year  the  Greeks,  to  the  number  of  110,000, 
fought  and  defeated  the  Persians  at  Platjea,  and  but  40,000 
of  the  latter  returned  to  Asia,  On  the  same  day  (Sept.  22.) 
the  Grecian  fleet  totally  defeated  that  of  the  Persians  at  the 
promontory  of  Mycale,  in  Ionia. 

Athens  got  a  large  share  of  the  Persian  spoils ;  the  cit\ 


6J»  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I, 

was  rebuilt,  and  the  port  of  PirsBus  fortified.  The  insolence 
of  Pausanias,  the  Spartan  chief,  having  disgusted  the  allies, 
the  command  was  transferred  to  Athens.  It  was  resolved  to 
prosecute  the  war  against  Persia ;  each  of  the  allies  was 
bound  to  supply  a  certain  number  of  men  and  ships ;  they 
compounded  with  the  Athenians  for  the  payment  of  an  annua 
Bum  of  money,  instead  of  furnishing  their  contingent;  the 
Athenian  treasurers  received  each  year  the  contributions 
of  the  cities  on  the  isles  and  coasts  of  the  iEgean;  and  Athens, 
at  the  expense  of  the  allies,  maintained  a  powerful  army  and 
navy.  The  jealousy  of  the  Spartans  was  excited ;  they  were 
on  the  point  of  declaring  war,  when  an  earthquake  levelled 
Sparta ;  the  Helots  and  Messenians  rose  in  rebellion,  and  the 
haughty  Spartans  were  forced  to  call  on  Athens  for  aid.  But 
they  distrusted  their  allies,  and  the  Athenians  joined  the  Ar- 
gives,  the  hereditary  foes  of  Sparta.  The  rebellion  of  the 
Helots  lasted  ten  years,  and  was  ended  by  a  composition  with 
the  rebels.  Athens  was  now  in  the  height  of  her  power ;  she 
sent  200  ships  to  Egypt  to  assist  the  natives  against  the  Per- 
sians, took  a  part  in  the  affairs  of  Cyprus,  beat  the  -^ginetes, 
and  established  a  democracy  at  Megara.  The  great  men  of 
Athens  at  this  period  were,  Aristides,  Themistocles,  and 
Cimon ;  all  of  whom,  like  Miltiades,  experienced  popular  in- 
gratitude, and  were  driven  from  their  country. 

The  Peloponnesian  War. 

Pericles  was  now  the  leading  man  at  Athens.  An  Alc- 
masonide  by  the  mother's  side,  and  son  of  Xanthippus,  who 
won  the  victory  at  Mycale,  he  sought  power  by  bringing  in 
the  wildest  democracy.  All  barriers  of  the  constitution  were 
thrown  down,  and  power  given  to  the  lowest  rabble,  by  whom 
and  over  whom  he  hoped  to  rule.  Of  commanding  eloquence, 
he  swayed  the  people ;  handsome,  rich,  generous,  and  brave^ 
he  was  master  of  their  affections.  Magnificent  in  his  taste, 
he  adorned  the  city  with  stately  buildings  at  the  cost  of  the 
allies,  and  all  the  arts  flourished  beneath  his  patronage. 

Pericles  reduced  Euboja  and  Samos ;  he  covered  the  coasts 
and  islands  with  Athenian  colonies ;  he  made  the  Athenians 
masters  of  the  sea,  ann  already  those  dreams  of  distant  con- 
quest, which  caused  their  overthrow,  began  to  float  before  the 
imagination  of  the  vain-glorious  people.  He  sought  to  en- 
feeble the  Doric  confederacy,  and  an  opportunity  soon  offered. 
Corinth  and  her  colony  Corcyra  were,  after  Athens,  the  most 
considerable  naval  powers.  United,  they  were  able  to  cope 
with  her;  but  commercial  jealousy  prevented  their  co-ope- 
rating, and,  at  last,  they  went  to  war  with  each  other.  Cor- 


wit     i     iK 


""^^  'W^ 


CHAP.  IV.  GEEBTIE  61 

cyra  addressed  herself  to  Athena  for  aid ;  the  Corinthiani 
complained  to  Sparta  of  the  breach  of  the  truce  by  tlie  latter 
power:  other  events  occurred  to  increase  the  odium  against 
Athens,  and,  at  length,  war  was  declared  against  her  by  tlie 
Doric  confederation,  and  an  army,  under  Archidamus,  one  of  «•  c 
the  Spartan  kings,  invaded  Attica.  The  plan  laid  down  by  3' 
Pericles  for  carrying  on  the  war  was,  to  abandon  the  country 
to  the  Lacedfiemonian  army,  and  then  retaliate  by  descents  on 
Peloponnesus,  by  which  they  would  soon  weary  the  confede- 
rates of  the  war.  Unfortunately,  destiny  fought  alst)  against 
Athens :  in  tlie  second  year  of  the  war  the  plague  broke  out, 
and  swept  away  numbers  of  citizens ;  amongst  tiiem,  Pericles 
himself  The  war  was  still  carried  on  with  various  success. 
The  most  remarkable  event  of  it  in  Greece,  was  the  gallant 
defence  of  Plataea  against  the  Peloponnesians.  The  greatest 
man  that  appeared  among  the  Spartans  was  Brasidas,  who,  to 
the  severe  virtues  of  a  Spartan,  united  mildness  and  gentle- 
ness of  manners.  Among  the  Athenians,  Nicias  and  De- 
mosthenes were  the  most  distinguished  of  tlie  nobles ;  Cleon, 
the  leading  demagogue ;  but  Alcibiades,  of  noble  birth,  im- 
mense wealth,  extreme  beauty,  and  eminent  talents,  far 
eclipsed  all  the  men  of  his  tune.  He  was  the  ward  of  Peri- 
cles and  the  pupil  of  Socrates;  but,  hurried  away  by  his  am- 
bition, he  waited  not  till  years  had  matured  his  judgment, 
engaging  in  politics  he  took  the  popular  side,  and  plunged  his 
country  into  the  fatal  expedition  to  Sicily. 

Numerous  Grecian  colonies  had  settled  in  Sicily,  and  had 
risen  to  great  wealth  and  power :  they  were  almost  all  democ- 
racies ;  but  tyrants  occasionally  ruled  them.  Syracuse  was 
the  most  distinguished  of  these  cities.  Gelon  had  possessed 
himself  of  the  tyranny,  and  governed  with  justice  and  mild- 
ae.ss:  after  his  death,  the  people  fell  into  divisions:  the 
smaller  cities,  which  were  oppressed,  applied  to  Athens  for 
elp.  Alcibiades,  who  was  then  in  the  plenitude  of  his  influ- 
nce,  warmly  exhorted  the  people  to  attend  to  the  call,  and 
drew  a  brilliant  picture  of  the  glorious  prospect  of  universal 
empire  that  now  seemed  destined  for  Athens,  In  an  evil 
hour  the  people,  though  warned  by  Nicias  and  other  men  of 
age  and  experience,  yielded  their  assent,  and  an  expedition 
against  Syracuse  was  decreed.  The  finest  fleet  that  ever 
left  Athens  sailed  under  the  command  of  Alcibiades,  Nicias 
and  Lamachus,  and  success  at  first  attended  its  operations , 
but  the  enemies  of  Alcibiades  accused  hun  of  profaning  the 
mysteries ;  he  was  recalled,  and  fled  to  Sparta :  a  Spartan 
general,  Gylippus,  was  dispatched  to  Syracuse,  and  though 
the  Athenians  augmented  Uieir  army  in  Sicily  to  40,000  men, 
6 


62  BISTORT  OP  THH  WORLD.  PART  1 

■.a  and  seut  out  Demosthenes,  their  ablest  general,  it  was  de> 
412-  feated,  and  men  and  generals  lost  life  or  liberty. 

The  news  of  this  misfortune  was  at  first  not  credited  at 
Athens:  when  its  truth  was  confirmed,  the  people  looked 
around  and  saw  themselves  without  horse,  or  heavy  infantiy, 
or  ships,  with  an  empty  treasury,  their  subjects  in  rebellion, 
their  allies  fallen  off,  the  enemy  m  tlieir  country,  and  before 
their  port ;  yet  they  lost  not  courage,  but  vigorously  prepared 
for  defence.  The  Lacedaemonians,  by  the  advice  of  Alcibia 
des,  instead  of  making  annual  incursions  into  Attica,  ha 
taken  and  fortified  Decelia,  a  post  half-way  between  Athen 
tnd  Boeotia,  and  from  thence  wasted  the  country :  still  the 
Athenians  held  out  for  seven  years :  and,  but  for  the  party- 
spirit  that  prevailed,  which  drove  again  into  exile  Alcibiades, 
•Jid  unjustly  put  to  death  most  of  their  other  good  generals, 
they  might  have  come  off  victorious  in  the  struggle.  The 
vanity  and  inexperience  of  the  Athenian  commanders  (warned 
JO!  01  vain  by  Alcibiades)  gave  a  decisive  victory  to  the  Lacedae- 
monian Lysander,  at  the  river  iEgos,  and  Athens'  last  hope, 
her  renewed  fleet,  was  lost.  Lysander  soon  appeared  in  the 
Piraeus;  the  people  made  a  gallant  resistance,  but  hunger 
compelled  tliem  to  sue  for  peace.  The  Thebans  and  Co- 
rinthians insisted  tliat  the  city  should  be  burnt,  and  the  in- 
habitants reduced  to  slavery.  The  Lacedaemonians  declared 
they  would  never  submit  to  the  destruction  of  a  city  which 
had  merited  so  well  of  Greece.  But  to  cramp  her  power 
effectually,  she  was  allowed  to  possess  but  twelve  ships ;  the 
Long  Legs,  the  walls  between  the  oity  and  the  Piraeus,  were 
broken  down ;  and  the  government  placed  in  the  hands  of  an 
oligarchy  of  thirty  persons. 

Thus  ended  the  Peloponnesian  war,  after  a  continuance  of 
twenty-seven  years,  and  with  it  the  dominion  of  Athens,  in 
the  seventy-fifth  year  after  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Durin 
that  period  Athens  had  acquired  another  and  more  lasting 
empire,  of  which  Lysander  could  not  deprive  her :  she  had 
become  the  mistress  of  Greece  in  all  the  arts  and  sciences 
that  embellish  and  ennoble  life.  Poetry,  philosophy,  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  attained  during  the  time  of  Athenian  sway 
an  eminence  never  surpassed.  The  philosophy  of  Socrates 
and  his  disciples,  the  dramas  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  the 
stately  Parthenon,  and  other  works  of  the  immortal  Phidias, 
drew  thither  all  Greece ;  and  nowhere  were  religious  festivals 
celebrated  with  equal  taste  and  splendor.  Commerce  flour- 
ished ;  good  taste  was  difiused  among  all  ranks  of  society 


OHAP.  IV.  OHEECE.  63 


Lacedccmonian  Dominion. 

When  Athens  fell,  Sparta  remained  without  a  rival :  she 
commanded  at  sea  as  at  land :  her  Harmosts,  somewhat  like 
the  English  residents  at  the  courts  of  Indian  princes,  directed 
the  policy  of  the  mdependent  towns  of  Greece  and  Asia. 
The  pride  and  arrogance  of  Sparta  lost  her  this  empire.  The 
oligarchy  established  and  protected  at  Athens  by  her  became 
odious ;  Athenian  exiles,  headed  by  Thrasybulus,  returned  to  n  < 
their  country  in  arms,  and  overthrew  the  thirty  tyrants:  the  t"' 
Long  Legs  were  rebuilt.  Conon,  the  Athenian,  was  admiral 
of  the  Persian  fleet ;  Persian  gold  was  employed  to  raise  tlir 
city  to  independence,  and  Athenian  fleets  again  appeared  ai 
sea.  Sparta  still  sought  to  establish  an  oligarchy  in  every 
town ;  and  wherever,  as  at  Olynthrs,  popular  liberty  est-ib- 
lished  itself,  the  Spartan  commanders  iiad  orders  to  extin- 
guish it. 

During  this  period,  Persia  exercised  considerable  influence 
in  the  affairs  of  Greece.    The  memorable  retreat  of  the  Ten 
Thousand,  who,  opposed  by  all  the  arts  of  oriental  treachery, 
by  all  the  forces  of  the  empire,  and  the  difficulties  of  an  un- 
kiiown,  mountainous  country,  had  forced  their  way  to  the 
Euxine,  revealed  the  secret  of  the  internal  weakness  of  that 
vast  empire.     Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  had  meditated  con- 
quests in  Asia,  and  had  for  two  years  carried  on  war  with 
success  in  that  country.     The  Persian  court  saw  its  danger,  396 
and  adopted  the  policy  of  subsidizing  the  different  states  of 
Greece,  and  keeping  up  such  a  balance  of  power  among  them, 
as  would  prevent  any  projects  of  invasion  of  Asia.     Hence, 
as  in  modern  times  two  Turkish  pashas  may  have  difl^erent 
foreign  policies,  so  of  the  two  satraps  of  Lesser  Asia  the  one 
would  support  the  Lacedaemonians,  the  other  their  enemies. 
By  these  means  the  influence  of  the  Persian  monarch  was 
become  so  great  in  Greece,  that  he  dictated  the  terms  of  a 
peace  among  the  contending  states ;  in  which  he  declares  the 
cities  of  Lesser  Asia,   nnd  the  islands  of  Clazomense  and 
Cyprus,  to  belong  to  himself,  and  pronounces  the  indepen- 
dence of  all  other  cities,  great  and  small,  with  the  exception 
of  Lemnos,  Imbrus,  and  Scyrus,  which  should  belong  as  of 
old  to  Athens,  and  menaces  with  war  such  as  refuse  to  nc-  •,{>*. 
cept  it     This   peace,   called   that  of  Antalcidas,  from   the 
name  of  the  Spartan  who  was  the  chief  agent  in  bringing  it 
lo  bear,  was  viewed  with  indignation  by  every  man  of  noble 
mind,  who  compared  it  with  the  terms  whicli  Greece,  wiien 
at  unity  with  herself,  had  imposed  on  the  Persians,  iiini  siiw 


B.  r 


04  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

in  it  loss  of  honor  and  independence  by  the  permission  of 
foreign  interference. 

Theban  Dominion. 

Sparta  had  humbled  Athens;  her  own  turn  was  to  come 
from  a  quarter  whence  it  was  least  expected.  A  Spartan 
general,  Phcebidas,  had,  in  the  midst  of  peace,  made  himself, 
by  treachery,  master  of  the  citadel  of  Thebes ;  his  govern- 
ment punished  him,  but  retained  the  fortress,  and  established 
an  oligarchy  in  that  city.  Sparta  seemed  at  this  period  i 
the  height  of  her  power.  Her  kmg,  Agesilaus,  was  victo- 
rious in  Asia,  she  had  dissolved  the  Olynthian  confederacy, 
and  reduced  Olynthus  to  that  state  of  subjection,  from  which 
Athens  alone  was  exempt,  and  never  less  dreaded  decline, 
when  a  conspiracy  was  formed  by  some  of  the  democratic 
party  in  Thebes ;  the  principal  oligarchs  were  murdered,  the 
citadel  besieged,  and  the  garrison  forced  to  surrender. 

Two  great  men  now  appeared  to  guide  the  Theban  affairs, 
Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas ;  the  Athenians  joined  them ;  the 
Thebans  recovered  their  supremacy  over  the  other  Boeotian 
towns.  The  Lacedsemonians  were  now  forced  to  recall  Affesi 
laus  from  his  conquests  m  Asia,  to  oppose  the  Theban  and 
Athenian  generals.  The  power  of  Thebes  continually  in- 
creasing, the  Athenians  grew  jealous,  and  sent  ambassadors 
to  the  Great  King,  who  directed  the  Greeks  to  make  peace 
among  themselves  on  the  basis  of  that  of  Antalcidas.  Athens 
and  Sparta  obeyed — it  was  for  the  advantage  of  both — and 
Sparta,  who  had  lost  all  influence  out  of  Peloponnesus,  will- 
ingly withdrew  her  harmosts.  Cleombrotus  was  marching 
his  troops  out  of  Phocis,  when  he  received  orders  to  make  the 
Thebans  restore  the  other  Boeotian  cities  to  independence. 
The  Thebans,  who  were  dissatisfied  at  the  peace  by  which 
they  were  the  only  losers,  refused  compliance;  the  armies 
_  met  on  the  plain  of  Leuctra,  and  the  Spartans  were  for  the 
371  first  time  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle.  The  charm  was  now 
dissolved.  It  was  proved  that  the  Lacedsemonian  arms  were 
not  invincible. 

Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  now  invaded  the  Peloponnesus 
at  the  head  of  40,000  men ;  the  Argives,  Elians,  and  the 
democratic  party  in  Arcadia,  joined  the  Thebans,  who  entered 
and  ravaged  the  LacedEDmonian  territory.  Epaminondas  ad- 
vanced mto  Messenia,  called  the  oppressed  inhabitants  to  lib- 
erty, recalled  tne  exiles,  and  raised  a  town  named  Messene, 
in  which  he  placed  a  Theban  garrison.  Athens  joined  Sparta. 
Ambassadors  from  all  the  parties  hastened  to  the  Persian 
court.     Pelopidas  headed  the  Theban  embassy,   peace  was 


CHAP.  IV.  GREECE.  67 

dictated  on  the  Theban  terms  and  the  stream  of  gold  thai 
previously  flowed  to  Sparta  was  directed  to  Thebes.  The 
Arcadians  had  now  become  powerful  in  Peloponnesus.  Lyco- 
medes,  one  of  their  leading  men,  sought  to  detach  them  from 
the  Thebans :  the  latter,  fearing  to  lose  their  influence  in  Pe- 
loponnesus, sent  an  army  thither  under  Epaininondas.  A 
second  battle  for  the  supremacy  in  Greece  was  fought  at  »  c 
Mantinca  between  the  Tiiebans  and  Lacedsmonians,  and  ■^''- 
Epaminondas  died  in  the  arms  of  victory. 

Philip  of  Mace  don. 

The  republican  spirit  was  now  extinct  m  Greece :  no  state  ' 
was  in  a  condition  to  take  the  lead;  no  man  of  any  eminence 
was  to  be  found  except  in  Athens.  The  republican  virtues 
had  fled  from  those  who  had  sunk  to  be  the  pensioners  of 
Persia,  A  monarchical  was  the  only  form  of  supremacy 
suited  to  the  present  state  of  Greece,  and  Providence  had 
provided  such  in  a  constitutional  monarcliy — that  of  Macedon. 

Jason,  the  tyrant  of  Pheree  in  Thessaly,  had  conceived  this 
design.  The  Thessalians  were  a  strict  aristocracy,  with  a 
numerous  body  of  vassals  called  Penestse,  resembling  the 
barons  of  the  middle  ages.  Occasionally  there  rose  a  prince 
in  some  town  among  them  who  gradually  united  several  towns 
under  him.  At  this  period,  Jason  was  such  in  Pherae,  and 
Polydamas  in  Pharsalus.  Both  were  men  of  virtue,  only  tliat 
of  Jason  was  not  proof  against  ambition.  They  united  in  the 
project  of  turning  the  quarrels  of  Thebes  and  Sparta  to  the 
advantage  of  Thessaly,  and  by  the  influence  of  Polydamas, 
Jason  was  chosen  Tagus,  or  commander-in-chief  of  Thessaly. 
He  took  tlie  samo  road  to  power  afterwards  so  successfully 
trodden  by  Philip;  but  he  was  unfortunate  in  three  circum- 
stances :  his  troops  were  chiefly  mercenaries,  and  therefore 
not  to  be  depended  upon ;  he  was  not  an  hereditary  prince, 
and  his  nobility  were  jealous  of  him ;  he  appeared  at  a  time 
when  the  great  Theban  generals  were  in  the  height  of  their 
glory,  and  when  Athens  had  generals  far  superior  to  those 
she  opposed  to  Philip.  Fate  seemed  rgsolved  to  deprive  Thes- 
saly of  the  glory  of  becoming  a  great  power.  Jason  perished 
by  the  daggers  of  conspirators :  his  brothers  and  his  nephew 
Alexander  were  tyrants,  in  the  modern  sense.  The  last  was 
murdered  by  his  own  relations,  and  Thessaly  fell  into  confu- 
sion and  disorder. 

At  this^eriod,  the  celebrated  Holy  War  broke  out,  and 
greatly  contributed  to  the  farther  demoralization  of  Greece, 
when  all  reverence  for  the  gods  and  every  thing  sjicred  was 
'oet,  and  the  holy  offerings  collected  for  so  many  yeaia  in  the 


68  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

temple  at  Delphi,  were  scattered  through  Greece,  the  pre- 
cious metals  melted  and  coined,  the  crowns  and  other  votive 
offerings  profanely  worn  by  women  and  boys  of  loose  life. 

The  BcEotians  and  Thessalians  formed  the  great  majority 
in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  They  caused  a  decree  to  be 
passed,  inflicting  a  heavy  fine  on  the  Lacedeemonians  for  their 
ravages  in  Bceotia ;  and  when  these  refused  payment,  uiey, 
from  private  motives,  did  the  same  to  the  Phocians  for  having 
occupied  the  land  tlmt  once  belonged  to  tlie  Cirrhseans,  and 
had  been  consecrated  to  the  god.  Relying  on  the  aid  of 
Athens  and  Sparta,  the  Phocians  refused  obedience,  and  by 
the  advice  of  Philomelus,  one  of  their  chief  men,  seized  on 
the  temple  and  its  treasures.  Greece  at  that  time  abounded 
in  soldiers  of  fortune,  men  who  made  war  a  trade,  who  served 
any  one  who  was  able  to  pay  them.  Masters  of  the  immense 
wealth  of  the  temple,  the  Phocians,  therefore,  easily  collected 
an  army,  and  they  carried  on  the  contest  for  a  space  of  ten 
years. 

In  this  war  the  Thessalians,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Pho- 
cians, called  Philip  king  of  Macedon  to  their  aid.  This  tal- 
ented prince,  who  had  been  brought  up  at  Thebes  in  the  time 
of  Epaminondas,  had,  from  the  day  he  ascended  the  Macedo- 
nian throne,  all  his  thoughts  occupied  on  the  means  of  strength- 
ening and  extending  his  hereditary  kingdom.  He  aided  the 
Thessalians,  and,  after  a  variety  of  changes  of  fortune,  the 
Phocians  were  at  length  destroyed,  Philip  made  himself 
master  of  Olynthus  and  all  the  cities  on  the  coast  of  Thrace, 
and  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Demosthenes,  who  did  all  that 
was  in  man  to  rouse  the  Athenians  to  energy  while  it  was 
yet  time,  contiimally  advanced  in  his  plans  of  power  and  ag- 
g  B  grandizement,  and  at  length,  on  the  field  of  CliEeronea,  saw 
3.J8   the  independence  of  Greece  prostrate  at  his  feet. 

Philip  v/as  now  at  the  height  of  his  power :  the  Spartans 
had  been  excluded  from  the  Amphictyonic  Council,  and  the 
votes  of  the  Phocians  transferred  to  him :  he  had  the  right 
of  priority  in  consulting  the  Delphian  oracle,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Pythian  games.  He  called  a  general  assembly 
of  the  Greeks  to  Corintli ;  and  was  there  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Grecian  forces  in  the  war  now  to  be 
undertaken  against  Persia,  under  pretext  of  avenging  her 
former  violations  of  the  Grecian  temples.  The  Macedonian 
monarch  thus  occupied  the  station  for  which  he  was  fitted, 
and  which  the  present  state  of  Greece  required, — that  of 
head  of  the  Grecian  confederacy ;  from  which  the  ill-judging 
oatriotism  of  Demosthenes  so  long  sought  to  exclude  him. 
The  idea  of  re<li  cing  Greece  to  a  province  of  his  kingdom 


CHAP.  V  ALEXANDER  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS.  69 

he  was  too  wise  to  entertain.    In  the  midst  of  his  projects 
for  the  conquest  of  Asia,  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin. 


CHAP.  V. 

ALEXANDER    AND   HIS   SUCCESSORS. 

Alexander. 

Alexander  was  in  his  twentieth  year  when  his  father  was  i.  o 
slain :  he  had  been  educated  by  Aristotle,  and  his  naturally  337 
great  talents  sedulously  cultured.  Difficulties  environed  him 
on  his  accession :  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  on  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  death  of  Philip,  were  flyirfg  to  arms,  when 
Alexander  appeared  in  Bceotia  at  the  head  of  an  army.  They 
were  terrified,  and  desisted.  The  Illyrians  and  Triballi  had 
made  inroads  into  Macedon:  the  young  prince  marched 
against  them,  and  conquered  to  the  Danube.  A  report  was 
spread  in  Greece  of  his  death :  Thebes  rose  in  arms ;  but 
Alexander  suddenly  returned,  entered  Boeotia,  and  took  and 
levelled  that  city.  All  Greece  was  now  at  his  devotion.  He 
called  on  the  different  states  for  the  contmgents  they  had 
voted  his  father  for  the  invasion  of  Asia ;  and,  at  the  head  of  334 
30,000  foot  and  4500  horse,  passed  the  Hellespont.  At  the 
river  Granicus  the  Persian  army  opposed  his  progress :  it  met 
a  total  defeat,  and  all  Lesser  Asia  fell  to  the  conqueror :  he 
restored  the  Grecian  cities  to  independence,  and  pursued  his 
march  through  Cilicia.  At  Tssus,  in  the  pass  of  the  mountains  333 
leading  into  Syria,  he  again  encountered  and  defeated  the 
Persian  army.  He  continued  his  progress  southwards,  took  a?2. 
Tyre,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  reduced  all  Egypt  to 
subjection.  He  here  founded  the  most  permanent  monument 
i>f  his  fame,  the  city  of  Alexandria, — a  place  that  has  exer- 
ci»3d  such  influence  on  the  political  and  moral  relations  of 
the  world  as  ever  to  render  it  memorable, — marched  with  a 
select  body  of  men  to  the  oasis  containing  the  temple  of  Am- 
mon,  and  obtained  from  tlie  priests  of  the  god  a  declaration 
of  his  divinity ;  acting  in  this,  perhaps,  with  policy, — perhaps, 
with  vanity. 

The  conquests  of  Alexander  can  only  be  compared  with 
those  of  the  Arabs  or  Mongols  in  rapidity.  Darius  having 
assembled  anotlier  army,  his  rival  hastened  from  Egypt.  On 
he  plain  between  Gaugatiiela  and  Arbela,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Armenian  and  Koordish  mountains,  he  encountered  the  host 
of  Darius,  composed,  it  is  said,  of  a  million  of  men,  while  ^t 


70  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  I. 

the  Grecian  troops  were,  at  most,  50,000  men.  The  Per- 
sians were  utterly  routed ;  Darius  fled  to  the  north-eastern 
provinces  of  his  kingdom,  and  Babylon  and  Susa  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror.  Persepolis  and  Ecbatana  shared 
their  fate.  Meantime  Darius  was  murdered  by  Bessus,  gov- 
ernor of  Bactria.  According  to  oriental  maxims,  Alexander 
was  now  king,  and  he  resolved  to  avenge  the  death  of  his 
predecessor :  he  invaded  Bactria,  put  to  death  Bessus,  who 
had  assumed  tlie  diadem,  and  conquered  the  whole  of  those 
northern  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire.  He  founded  cities 
in  Bactria  and  Sogdiana,  and  then  directed  his  course  towards 
India.  From  the  southern  part  of  Balkh  he  marched  through 
Candahar,*  Ghizni,  and  Caubul,  to  the  Indus.  Though  val- 
iantly opposed  by  the  natives,  the  predecessors  of  the  modern 
Seeks,  he  was  victorious,  and  still  advanced,  till  the  discon- 
tent of  his  troops  obliged  him  to  return :  he  proceeded  south- 
wards along  the  river,  sent  a  fleet  under  Nearchus  from  the 
[ndus  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and,  with  a  great  loss  of  men  and 
beasts,  made  his  way  across  the  deserts  into  Persia.  Shortly 
5.  c  afterwards  he  met  his  death  from  drunkenness,  or  poison,  at 
324    Babylon,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age. 

Alexander's  great  object  seems  to  have  been  the  establish- 
ment of  one  great  and  permanent  empire,  of  which  the  dif- 
ferent parts  would  be  united  by  mutual  political  and  com- 
mercial advantages.  Hence  he  sought  to  do  away  all  national 
prejudices,  and  make  his  different  subjects  feel  themselves 
one  people.  To  attain  this  object,  he  founded  those  numerous 
Grecian  cities  in  various  parts  of  his  oriental  dominions,  and 
had  he  lived  a  few  years  longer  he  might  possibly  have,  in  a 
great  measure,  accomplished  what  he  aimed  at.  But  his 
early  death  frustrated  aJl  these  great  projects,  and  the  am- 
bition of  his  generals  speedily  pulled  down  the  fabric  he  was 
erecting. 

Division  of  Alexander's  Dominions. 

Alexander  died  without  appointing  a  successor.  The  queen 
Roxana,  was  pregnant,  and  he  had  a  half-brother,  named 
Philip  Aridseus,  who  was  simple.  When  dying,  he  had  given 
his  ring  to  Perdiccas.  After  much  warm  dispute  among  the 
generals,  they  came  to  the  resolution  that  Alexander  (Rox- 
ana's  son)  and  Philip  Aridseus  should  be  proclaimed  kings ; 
that  Perdiccas  should  be  guardian,  and  that  each  general 
should  take  the  charge  of  a  province.    The  partition  of  offices 

•  The  city  of  Candahar  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander.  Ita 
name  seems  evidently  derived  from  his.  He  is  called  in  the  East  Iscander, 
and,  rejecting  the  first  syllable,  Candtr  and  Candahar  are  not  unlike. 


o 
a 

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CHAP.  V.  ALEXANDEU  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORa  73 

and  provinces  was  thus  made: — Perdiccas  had  no  prov- 
ince, but  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army:  Anti pater 
and  Craterus  had  charge  of  the  European  dominions ;  Seleu- 
cus,  of  Babylon ;  Ptolemy,  of  Egypt,  Libya,  and  part  of  Ara- 
bia ;  Leonatus,  of  Mysia ;  Antigonus,  of  Phrygia,  Lycia,  and 
Pamphylia ;  Lysimachus,  of  Macedonian  Thrace ;  Laomedon 
had  Syria;  Python,  Media;  Menander,  Lydia;  &c.  &.c.  To 
the  valiant  Eumenes  was  assigned  Cappadocia,  whose  inhab- 
itants were  yet  to  be  subdued. 

The  kings  were  only  such  in  name,  and  these  Grecian  sa- 
traps saw  and  grasped  at  the  opportunity  of  making  them- 
selves independent  princes.  A  period  of  unceasing  tumult, 
war,  and  murder,  formed  the  first  sixteen  years  that  succeed- 
ed the  death  of  Alexander.  Perdiccas  first  conceived  the 
plan  of  gaining  the  empire  by  destroying  the  governors,  one 
after  another.  This  plan  was  facilitated  by  their  mutual 
animosities,  or  their  contests  with  those  over  whom  they 
ruled.  Ptolemy,  the  most  powerful  of  the  governors,  was 
singled  out  as  the  first  object  of  attack.  Perdiccas  led  an  3  ^ 
army  into  Egypt,  but  was  murdered  by  his  own  mutinous  321 
troops. 

Craterus  fell  in  a  battle  against  Eumenes,  and  Antipater 
remained  sole  regent  of  Macedon.  He  died  shortly  after,  319 
having  appointed  Polysperchon  to  succeed  him.  Polysper- 
chon  joined  the  party  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander. 
Aridaeus  and  his  wife  were  put  to  death,  and  the  friends  of 
Antipater  persecuted.  The  nobles  clung  to  his  son  Cassan- 
der,  and  Olympias  expiated  her  crimes  by  a  violent  death.       315 

Antigonus  took  and  put  to  death  Eumenes,  who  maintained 
the  rights  of  Alexander's  family.  He  now  ruled  over  all 
Lesser  Asia,  wrested  Syria  and  Phoenicia  from  Ptolemy,  and 
drove  Seleucus  from  Babylon.  His  valiant  son  Demetrius 
passed  over  to  Greece,  and  restored  tJie  cities  to  freedom ; 
then  collected  a  fleet,  and  defeated  that  of  Ptolemy  off  Cy-  3(n 
prus.  His  father  now  assumed  the  title  of  kinfr,  and  his  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  other  governors.  The  family  of 
Alexander  was  now  extinct,  Roxana  and  her  son  having  been 
put  to  death  by  Cassander.  But  Antigonus's  reign  was  of 
short  duration :  his  ambition  was  too  inordinate ;  and  a  league 
was  formed  against  him  by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  Lysimachus, 
and  Cassander.  Antigonus  fell,  in  his  80th  year,  in  battle  301 
against  his  rivals,  on  the  field  of  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia,  and  the 
victors  shared  his  dominions  among  them. 

The  dominions  of  Alexander  were  now  divided  into  ioni 


74  mSTORY  OB  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

great  kingdoms.     Macedon,  with  a  part  of  Greece ;  Thrace ; 
Syria,  wiSi  all  Upper  Asia ;  Egypt,  with  Cyrene  and  Cyprus. 

Macedon. 

Cassander,  when  he  had  destroyed  the  femily  of  Alexan- 
der, took  the  title  of  king.     His  vicious  and  feeble  sons  los 
their  lives  and  the  throne,  which  was  seized  on  by  Deme 
rj,  trius,  son  of  Antigonus:  he  was  expelled  by  Pyrrhus,  th 
87!  Epirote ;  and  Pyrrhus,  by  Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace.    Du 
ring  sixteen  years,  twelve  kings  of  different  houses  governed 
the  paternal  dominions  of  Alexander.     In  the  time  of  these 
kings,  an  army  of  Kelts  devastated  Macedon,  penetrated  into 
Greece,  and  advanced  to  pillage  the  temple  of  Delphi.     The 
Greeks  rolled  down  rocks  from  the  heights ;  thunder  roared 
through  the  mountains; — the  terrified  barbarians  fled,  and 
the  god  got  the  renown  of  defending  his  temple. 

Antigonus  Gonatas,  son  of  Demetrius,  a  man  of  prudence 
and  humanity,  raised  Macedon  out  of  the  ruin  into  which  it 
had  been  plunged ;  and,  during  a  reign  of  forty  years,  he  was 
the  protector  of  Greece.     His  son,  Demetrius  II.,  who  suc- 

243.  ceeded  him,  emulated  his  virtues.  Demetrius  dying,  left  an 
infant  son,  Philip,  whose  uncle  and  guardian,  Antigonus,  sur- 
named  Doson,  married  the  widow  of  the  late  king,  and  usurp- 
ed the  kingdom,  which  he  governed  with  ability  for  eleven 
years,  and  then  left  to  the  lawfiil  heir,  Philip.     This  prince 

298.  mixed  himself  in  the  affairs  of  Greece,  and  was  recognized 
as  sovereign  lord  of  that  country.  War  took  place,  in  conse 
quence,  between  him  and  the  Romans,  and  Philip  was  d» 
feated,  obliged  to  withdraw  his  garrisons  from  Greece,  reduce 

243  his  shipping,  and  pay  the  expenses  of  tne  war.  His  son  Per- 
seus renewed  the  war  with  Rome,  but  was  taken,  and  died 
in  prison ;  and  Macedon  was  shortly  afterwards  ^-educed  to  a 
Roman  province. 

The  Macedonian  kingdom  extended  from  the  Propontis, 
through  Thrace,  to  the  mountains  of  ^Etolia,  lying  at  the 
aorth  of  the  coimtry  of  Greece. 

Greece. 

We  have  seen  all  Greece  submit  to  Philip  and  Alexander. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,  some  unavailing  efforts  had 
been  made,  especially  by  Athens,  to  re-establish  the  ancient 
freedom ;  but  they  were  always  obliged  to  bow  their  necks, 
once  more,  to  the  JMacedonian  yoke.  There  was  no  union 
among  them ;  they  pursued  their  old  feuds  and  petty  contests, 
instead  of  combining  for  a  common  object ;  and  their  country 


CHAP.  V.  ALEXANDER  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORa  75 

was  continually  ravaged  by  the  armies  of  the  contendmg 
generals  of  Alexander. 

Sparta,  which  had  sulkily  refused  to  take  part  in  the  con 
quest  of  the  East,  and  had  waged  aii  unsuccessful  war  against 
Antipater,  had  long  since  seen  the  decline  of  her  Lycurgean 
constitution.  In  vain  the  patriotic  A.gis  sought  to  bttng  his 
country  back  to  her  former  state ;  his  life  atoned  for  his  op- 
position to  the  tyrannic  oligarchs.  Sparta  became  the  do- 
minion of  the  most  odious  of  tyrants;  she  joined  the  Romans 
against  Macedon,  and  then  changed  sides,  and  she  ended  by 
becoming,  like  the  other  Grecian  states,  a  part  of  the  Roman 
dominions. 

The  cities  of  Achsea  renewed  among  themselves  an  old 
confederacy,  named  the  Achijean  league,  which,  under  the 
guidance  of  Aratus,  labored  with  vigor  for  the  freedom  of 
Greece  against  Macedon:  gradually,  other  states,  and 
amongst  them,  Athens,  joined  the  league.  The  ^tolian  towns 
formed  a  similar  union ;  but  their  enmity  with  the  Achaeans 
and  Sparta  prevented  their  arriving  to  any  importance.  Civil 
discord,  the  perpetual  bane  of  Greece,  gave  the  Romans  the 
wished-for  opportunity  of  intermeddling  in  its  affairs.  Corinth 
was  taken  and  destroyed ;  and  Greece  reduced  to  a  Roman 
province,  under  the  name  of  Achaea.  The  last  of  the  heroes 
of  Greece  was  PhilopcEmen,  the  Arcadian  general  of  the  b  c 
Achfean  league,  justly  styled  the  last  of  the  Greeks.  Two  183 
thousand  years  have  rolled  away  since  the  death  of  Philopce- 
men,  without  Greece,  till  of  late,  producing  a  warrior  for  in- 
dependence. May  she  derive  wisdom  from  the  past,  and 
avoid  the  errors  by  which  she  lost  her  freedom ! 

Thrace. 

Lyeimachus  made  himself  king  of  Thrace ;  he  conquered  32a 
Macedon,  and  was  also  master  of  a  part  of  the  countries 
about  the  Euxine.  His  reign  was  the  flourishing  period  of 
Thrace;  but  it  was  of  short  duration.  Lysimachus  fell  in 
oattle  against  Seleucus :  the  Gauls  ravaged  the  land,  which 
sometimes  obeyed  Syrian,  sometunes  Egyptian,  princes.  The 
native  chiefs  recovered  their  power.  King  Cotys,  one  of  these 
princes,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Romans :  king  Sasales  4i3 
gave  up  Thrace  to  them. 

At  this  period,  some  independent  states  arose  in  Lesser 
Asia,  which  we  shall  notice  in  this  place. 

Bithynia. 

This  country,  stretching  along  the  Black  Sea  to  tlio  Pro- 
•KHitis  and  the  Hellespont,  was,  at  one  time,  tributary  to  the 


76  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

Lydians,  and  then  to  the  Persians.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, a  native  chief,  named  Bas,  expelled  Calanthus,  the 
Macedonian  governor.  Internal  troubles  continually  agitated 
this  state.  Nicomedes  I.,  to  keep  his  throne,  allied  himself 
with  the  Gauls,  to  whom  he  assigned  a  district,  called,  from 
them,  Galatia.  Prusias  is  known  by  Annibal's  having  sought 
in  vain  a  refuge  at  his  court.  Nicomedes  II.  was  expelled  by 
«  c  Mithridates,  and  restored  by  the  Romans;  to  whom  Nice 
75.   modes  IV.,  having  no  children,  made  over  his  dominions. 

Pe7-gaTniis. 

The  ancient  Mysia  vanished  in  the  Lydian  and  Persian 
empires.  While  Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace,  ruled  this  part 
of  Asia,  nis  lieutenant,  an  eunuch  named  Philetferus,  made 
himself  independent,  and  established  a  kingdom,  called  Per- 
2y3  gamus,  from  its  capital.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Eumenes,  who  extended  his  dominions  considerably.  Attalus 
II.  was  the  first  who  took  the  title  of  king.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  these  kings  was  Eumenes  II.,  in  whose  reign  the 
pergament,  or  parchment,  was  invented.  His  dominions  em- 
braced the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  Asia  tliis  side  of  Tau- 
rus, consequently,  JNIysia,  Lydia,  the  two  Phrygias,  and  Ly- 
83.  caonia.  His  son,  Attalus  III.,  having  no  heirs,  lefl  his  king- 
dom to  the  Romans. 

Pontus. 

This  country,  named  from  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  on  which 
it  lay,  formed  a  part  of  northern  Lesser  Asia,  east  of  Bithy- 
nia.  It  was  included  in  the  Persian  dominions,  and  was 
given  as  an  hereditary  fief  by  Darius  I.  to  his  son  Artabazes. 
Ariobarzanes,  one  of  his  successors,  having  obtained  also 

d65  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and  Ionia,  became  so  powerful,  that  he  cast 
off  the  Persian  yoke.  Mithridates  II.  voluntarily  surrendered 
his  kingdom  to  Alexander.  When,  after  that  monarch's 
death,  Antipater  attempted  tp  seize  this  state,  the  Pontic 
prince  resisted,  and  maintained  his  independence.     Succeed- 

124.  ing  princes  enlarged  their  dominions.  Mithridates  VII.,  the 
greatest  of  them,  was  talented  and  ambitious:  yet,  though 
desirous  of  conquest,  he  sought  to  avoid  a  conflict  with  the 
Romans,  at  that  time  masters  of  a  great  part  of  Lesser  Asia. 
He  therefore  turned  his  arms  eastwards,  and  conquered  the 
tribes  round  the  Euxine  as  far  as  the  Tauric  Chersonese.  But 
two  such  powerful  neighbors  could  not  continue  long  without 
a  rupture ;  war  broke  out  between  them  on  account  of  Pam- 
phylia  and  Cappadocia,  and  during  a  space  of  thirty  years  tlie 
gallant  and  indefatigable  king  of  Pontus  sustained  a  war 


r 


CHAP.  V.  ALEXANDER  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS.  79 

against  the  arms  of  Rome,  conducted  by  Sulla,  Lucullus,  and 
Pompeius.  Poison,  administered  by  his  own  hand,  terminated  Gl 
his  eventful  life.  His  grandson  Darius  reigned  over  Pontus ; 
but  its  glory  and  its  power  were  gone,  and  it  was  finally,  by 
the  emperor  Nero,  reduced  to  tlie  form  of  a  Roman  prov- 
ince. 

Armenia. 

This  mountainous  but  fruitful  country  appears  not  till  late 
in  the  history  of  Asia.  It  was  divided  into  Great  and  Little 
Armenia,  and  had  obeyed  successively  the  Assyrian,  Persian, 
and  Syrian  empires.  In  the  reign  of  Antiochus  III.,  Artaxias,  190 
the  governor  of  Great,  and  Zariades  of  Little  Armei  'a,  made 
themselves  independent.  Tigranes,  a  descendant  of  tlie 
former,  united  the  two  Armenias,  and  was  superior  lord  of 
Syria  and  Cappadocia.  His  father-in-law,  Mithridates  VII., 
involved  him  in  a  war  with  the  Romans,  and  he  lost  Little 
Armenia  and  Syria.  Tigranes  II.  was  put  to  death  by  order 
of  the  Roman  emperor  Tiberius.  little  Armenia  had  been 
given  after  the  fall  of  Mithridates  to  Dejotarus,  a  Galatian, 
and  then  to  other  foreigners.  After  this  period  it  vanishes 
out  of  history,  and  Great  Armenia  becomes  the  apple  of  dis- 
cord between  the  Romans  and  Parthians.  After  many  con- 
flicts between  the  contending  parties,  it  had  again  kings  of 
its  own  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  and  was  finally 
absorbed  in  the  Persian  empire  of  the  Sassanides. 

Syria. 

Seleucus,  named  Nicator,  was,  after  the  death  of  Alexan- 
Aer,  governor  of  Babylon.  He  extended  his  power  eastwards 
into  India,  and,  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  he  became  master  of 
Syria,  and  possessor  of  all  or  nearly  all  the  countries  that  had 
composed  the  Persian  empire.  Seleucus  was  an  active,  pru- 
dent prince,  an  encourager  of  trade,  and  a  founder  of  cities. 
With  him  the  Syrian  empire  rose ;  after  his  death  it  gradually 
declined.  His  son  Antiochus  obtained  the  name  of  Soter,  the 
Saver,  from  having  delivered  Lesser  Asia  from  the  Gauls ; 
but  he  was  forced  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  Bi- 
thynia  and  Pergamus.  Antiochus  II.,  named,  by  his  flatter- 
ers, Theos,  the  "God,  was  weak  and  efl^eminate.  The  Parthi-  2i>j 
ans  cast  off  the  yoke  of  Syria,  and  their  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Bactrians.  Seleucus  II.,  seeking  to  regain  the 
lost  supremacy,  died  a  prisoner  in  Parthia.  Antiochus  the 
Great  fought  in  vain  against  the  Parthians  and  Bactrians:  he 
reduced  the  rebel  governors  of  Media  and  Persia;  but  his  do- 
feat  by  the  Egyptians  at  Raphia  lost  him  Palestine  and  Coelo 


so  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I 

B.  c  Byria.  Engaging  in  war  with  the  Romans,  he  invaded 
190  Greece,  but  was  repelled ;  and  the  battle  of  Magnesia  checked 
his  career  of  ambition.  The  terms  on  which  the  haughty 
senate  dictated  peace  were,  the  surrender  of  all  the  countries 
on  this  side  Taurus,  payment  of  15,000  talents  to  the  Romans, 
and  400  to  Eumenes  of  Pergamus ;  the  delivery  of  Annibal, 
and  the  sending  of  his  son  as  a  hostage  to  Rome. 

The  Syrian  power  was  now  at  an  end.  Roman  influence 
was  paramount,  all  efforts  to  shake  it  off  were  futile.  Murder 
and  treason  disputed  for  the  throne :  neighbors  and  subjects 
took  advantage  of  its  weakness.  Parthia  rapidly  extended  its 
conquests.  Judea  and  the  Armenias  asserted  their  indepen- 
dence. The  empire  was  finally  contracted  to  Proper  Syria 
and  Phoenicia.  Tigranes  of  Armenia  seized  on  Syria;  and 
54  the  Romans  gave  the  empire  of  the  Seleucides  its  coup  de 
grace,  by  declaring  Syria  a  Roman  province, 

Judea. 

Only  a  small  portion  of  Israel  took  advantage  of  Cyras  s 
permission  to  return  to  their  own  country.  Those  that  did 
return  were  chiefly  of  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  and  hence  the  na- 
tion is  in  future  called  Jews.  They  were  feeble,  and  they 
continued  in  humble  obedience  to  the  Persian  monarchy.  On 
its  destruction,  they  obeyed  Alexander  and  his  successors, 
first  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  then  of  Syria. 

Their  rulers  had  hitherto  respected  their  religion.  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes  attempted  to  force  them  to  adopt  Grecian 
rites.  The  Maccabees,  a  race  of  heroes,  like  the  judges  of 
old,  arose.  Mattathias  assembled  bands  in  the  mountains,  and 
thence  fell  on  the  Syrians.  His  valiant  son,  Judas  Macca- 
beus, continued  the  warfare,  defeated  several  Syrian  armies, 
and  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph.  He  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans.  The  brothers  of  Judas,  Jonathan,  Simon, 
and  John  Hyrcanus,  followed  up  his  successes  so  ably  afler 
his  death,  that  the  Syrians  were  forced  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  Judea. 

Uniting  in  his  own  person  the  dignities  of  high-priest  and 
prince,  John  Hyrcanus  extended  his  dominion  over  Galilee, 
the  country  beyond  Jordan,  Idumea,  &c. ;  and  the  Jewish 
state  became  under  him  of  greater  extent  than  it  had  been 
since  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon.     His  son  Aristobulua 

107   took  the  title  of  king. 

The  Jewish  power  was  not  of  long  continuance.  Factions 
and  feuds  broke  out:  th6  throne  was  oflen  disputed.  The 
Romans   interposed  to  settle  the  succession.    Pompeius  led 

fi2.   Aristobulus  and  hif  sons  to  Rome,  and  gave  the  throne  and 


D 


CHAP.  V.  ALEXANDER  AND  HIS  SU XESSORS.  81 

priesthood  to  his  brother  Hyrcanus,  pbcin^  a  Roman  governor  b  c 
by  his  side.     The  troubles,  however,  ptill  continued ;  and  the   -^ 
Romans  at  last  set  tl)e  Idumean  Antipn.ter  over  Judea,  wliose 
son  Herod  became  king-,  a  prince  weil  known  for  his  cruelty. 
On  the  death  of  Herod,  the  Romans  divided  his  kingdom 
among  his  three  sons.     The  whole  wt-d  reunited  unde'r  his 
grandson  Agrippa,  and  after  his  death  reduced  to  a  Roman   44 
province. 

Parthia. 

Parthia  is  the  country  lying  between  Media  and  Ana, 
south  of  Hyrcania,  Its  inhabitants  had  obeJ■^d  the  Persian 
and  Syrian  monarchs:  the  tyranny  of  a  governor  cf  the 
latter  drove  them  mto  rebellion.  Arsaces,  a  man  of  humble 
birth,  but  military  talent,  placed  himself  at  their  head,  and 
achieved  their  independence.  The  succeeding  Arsacidcs,  as 
the  kings  were  named,  enlarged  their  dominions,  which 
gradually  extended  from  India  to  the  Euphrates,  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  Arabian  sea.  When  the  Romans  became 
masters  of  Lesser  Asia,  proximity  produced  enmity,  and  the 
Parthians  were  the  only  people  who  resisted  Rome  with  suc- 
cess. Crassus,  who  led  the  first  Roman  army  over  the  Eu- 
phrates, was  defeated  and  slain.  In  the  civil  wars  of  the  Ro- 
mans they  also  took  a  share,  siding  with  Pompeius  against 
Csesar;  and  with  the  latter's  murderers  against  Octavianua 
and  Antonius.  Ventidius,  the  general  of  the  latter,  gave 
them  a  decisive  overthrow. 

The  remaining  history  of  the  Parthians  offers  only,  exter- 
nally, continued  wars  with  various  success  against  the  Ro- 
mans ;  internally,  the  usual  series  of  murder,  usurpation,  and 
cruelty,  which  characterize  the  monarchies  of  Asia.  The 
twenty-ninth  of  the  Arsacides  was  driven  from  his  throne  by 
Artaxerxes,  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  line  of  Persia ;  and 
a  new  dynasty,  that  of  the  Sassanides,  so  named  from  Sassan, 
the  founder's  father,  was  established. 

Egypt. 

Egypt  was  the  most  fortunate  of  the  provinces  in  the  char- 
acter of  its  governor.  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  was  a  man  of 
prudence  and  moderation  :  his  first  object  was  to  firm  there  a 
Grecian  state  without  oppressing  the  original  inhabitints. 
Peace  was  necessary  for  the  execution  of  his  judicious  plana, 
and  he  never,  but  when  constrained,  took  part  in  the  quarrels 
of  the  other  governors.  After  the  battle  oflpsus.  to  the  gain- 
ing of  which  he  had  mainly  contributed,  he  also  assumed  the 
title  of  king.     He  then  turned  all  his  thoughts  to  the  benefit- 


82  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  1?ART  I 

ing  of  his  kingdom ;  he  beautified  Alexandria,  built  the  Pharua 
light-house,  encouraged  every  kind  of  trade,  collected  a  li- 
brary, and  invited  learned  men  from  all  parts  to  Alexandria. 
His  empire  included  Egypt,  Libya,  Cyrene,  part  of  Arabia, 
Palestine,  and  Coelosyria ;  and  flourished  each  day  more  ai.d 
more,  in  consequence  of  his  wise  regulations  and  just  govern- 
ment. Ptolemy  II.,  named  Philadelphus,  trod  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  father,  and  equalled  or  excelled  him  in  his  pat- 
ronage of  learning.  He  much  extended  and  facilitated  the 
trade  to  India,  by  repairing  the  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the 
Red  Sea;  and,  still  more,  by  forming  the  harbor  of  Berenice 
B.  c.  on  that  sea.  Ptolemy  III.,  Evergetes,  imitated  his  father  and 
221  grandfather,  and  closed  the  series  of  the  virtuous  Ptolemies. 
After  the  death  of  Evergetes,  there  reigned  in  Egypt  ten 
degenerate  descendants  of  Ptolemy  Lagus.  Discord  agitated 
this  royal  house,  like  otliers ;  murders  vi^ere  perpetrated  for 
empire.  The  constant  interference  of  the  Romans  alone 
preserved  it  from  dissolution.  With  their  consent,  and  by  the 
will  of  his  father,  the  last  Ptolemy  espoused  his  sister  Cleo- 
patra, and  shared  his  empire  with  her.  Driven  from  Egypt, 
she  sought  the  protection  of  Csesar,  who  re-established  her  as 
sole  ruler.  After  his  death,  she  united  herself  to  Antonius 
and,  on  his  death,  poisoned  herself,  rather  than  grace  the 
30  triumph  of  Octavianus.  Egypt  was  then  reduced  to  the  forre 
of  a  Roman  province. 

The  kingdoms  of  Europe  and  Asia,  whose  destinies  wj 
have  traced  in  the  preceding  pages,  fell,  as  we  have  seen 
almost  all  into  the  spreading  empire  of  Rome  ;  a  state  which 
as  will  soon  appear,  grew  up  from  the  smallest  origin,  and, 
gathering  strength  from  every  storm  that  assailed  her,  at 
length  embraced  nearly  the  whole  civilized  world  beneath 
her  shade.  To  her  we  now  hasten,  previously  sketching  the 
early  history  of  her  first  transmarine  rival, 

Carthage. 

At  an  early  period  of  history  a  colony  of  Tyrians,  said  to 
have  been  conducted  by  Dido,  sister  to  the  king  of  Tyre 
founded  on  the  coast  of  Africa  the  city  of  Carthage.  Pos- 
sessed of  the  commercial  enterprise  and  dexterity  of  their 
countrymen,  they  rapidly  extended  their  trade  and  their 
dominions.  Numerous  cities  on  the  coast  of  Africa  were 
founded  by  them:  they  trafficked  with  the  interior:  their 
ships  sailed  to  the  south  beyond  the  Canary  isles ;  northwards 
tbey  visited  the  shores  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  and,  perhaps, 
those  of  the  Baltic :  they  wrought  the  silver  mines  of  Spain: 
their  colonies  occupied  tiie  isles  of  the  Mediterranean. 


JO 

"a 
B 


v\WS*'S'«''^»"''  I'l'ilt'*'' ' 


CHAP.  VL  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  85 

The  political  constitution  of  Carthage  claimed  the  admi- 
ration of  Aristotle.  Two  magistrates,  named  Suffetes,  or 
judges,*  chosen  annually  from  the  most  distinguiahed  families, 
were  at  the  head  of  the  government :  under  them  were  five 
persons  who  managed  the  chief  affairs.  All  these  magistrates 
were  unpaid.  The  senate  was  composed  of  100  members :  if 
they  and  the  five  agreed  on  any  matter,  it  was  put  into  exe- 
cution; if  they  disagreed,  it  was  brought  before  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people :  the  decision  of  the  last  was  conclu 
sive.  Morals  were  more  attended  to  in  Carthage  than  in 
most  Grecian  cities,  and  there  was  a  magistrate  there  cor- 
responding with  the  Roman  censor.  The  popular  power  was 
not  so  dangerous  in  Carthage  as  in  Greece,  the  people  bemg 
of  a  grave  and  solemn  character,  and  not  to  be  led  astray  by 
the  arts  of  demagogues.  Their  manners  were  rugged,  their 
religion  dark  and  cruel. 

Six  wars  were  waged  by  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily.  The  h  c 
first  was  caused  by  the  people  of  Egesta  calling  on  them  for  413 
aid  against  Dionysius  of  Syracuse.  In  this  war  fortune 
favored  the  Punic  arms.  A  second  and  a  third  war  ensued 
between  them  and  the  prince  of  Syracuse,  still  to  the  advan- 
tage of  Carthage.  During  a  fourth,  Dionysius  died,  £md  his 
son  made  peace.  The  Carthaginian  arms  were,  for  the  fifth 
time,  directed  against  Syracuse,  in  support  of  Icetas,  tyrant 
of  Leontium.  Timoleon,  the  Corinthian,  commanded  the 
Syracusan  troops,  and  forced  Carthage  to  restore  the  Grecian 
towns  to  freedom,  to  recognize  the  river  Halycus  as  their 
boundary,  and  to  engage  not  to  meddle  with  the  affairs  of 
Sicily.  Agathocles  was  the  occasion  of  the  Carthaginians 
again  engaging  in  hostilities  with  Syracuse  ;  and  the  latter 
was  so  hard  pressed  as  to  be  forced  to  call  on  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  for  assistance.  Carthage  was  successfiil  against 
Pyrrhus ;  but  this  war  involved  her  in  hostilities  with  Rome, 
and  thereby  caused  her  ruin. 


CHAP.  VI. 

ROUK   TUX   THE    PUNIC    WAR& 

Rome  under  Kings. 

Whilb  empire  after  empire  was  flourishing  and  fallinf]r  in 
Asia,  while  the  various  states  of  Greece  were  contending 
with  each  other,  or  occupied  by  internal  changes,  there  waa 

•  Shofctim  is  the  Hebrew  name   -f  the  Judges  of  Iprncl. 

8 


86  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

growing  up,  from  the  smallest  beginnings,  a  nation  destired 
to  be  the  future  mistress  of  all  these  states  and  empires. 

Italy,  the  peninsula  westward  of  Greece,  was  originally 
inhabited  by  tribes  of  an  unknown  race.  The  Pelasgians, 
that  extensive  people  who  settled  in  Greece,  also  Cftablished 
themselves  in  Italy.  They  inhabited  the  plains  and  the 
coasts,  and  were  peaceful  and  agricultural :  the  mountain 
tribes  gradually  encroached  upon  them  and  conquered  them. 
On  the  banks  of  the  river  Tiber,  a  portion  of  this  people, 
named  Siculans,  was  established :  a  tribe  of  the  mountains, 
named  Aborigines  by  the  historians,  invaded  their  country, 
expelled  a  part,  and  conquered  and  settled  themselves  among 
the  remainder;  and  the  united  people  were  called  Latins. 
A  portion  of  them  lived  in  villages,  on  some  hills  adjacent  tc 
the  Tiber.  Another  mountain-race,  called  the  Sabines,  after- 
i.  c.  wards  advanced  towards  the  sea,  and  wrested  from  the  in- 
'53.  habitants  of  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  a  part  of  their  territory 
These  nations  finally  coalesced,  and  formed  one  people ;  theii 
joined  city  was  named  Rome,  possibly  its  old  P'  'nsgian  ap- 
pellation, and  it  was  governed  by  kings,  chosen  aiiuiuately  by 
one  of  the  combined  nations  out  of  the  other. 

Such  is  the  most  probable  account  of  the  origin  of  Rome 
which  the  researches  of  modern  times  have  be*  able  to 
give.*  A  different  and  more  romantic  tale  appears  in  the  an- 
cient historians ;  for  the  early  history  of  Rome  was  not  writ- 
ten till  she  had  become  a  great  and  powerful  state,  and  then 
inquirers  could  meet  no  narratives  of  the  days  long  past, 
save  what  was  contained  in  popular  tradition  and  popular 
poetry,  which  recorded  marvels  of  Rome's  descent  from  wide- 
famed  Troy,  the  landing  of  Ji^neas  in  Latium,  the  love  of 
the  god  Mars  for  the  vestal  Rhea,  her  bearing  twins  by  the 
god,  their  exposure  in  the  Tiber,  their  being  saved  and 
suckled  by  a  wolf,  and  fed  by  a  woodpecker  till  found  by  the 
shepherd  Faustulus,  their  finally  restoring  their  grandfather 
to  the  throne  of  Alba  Longa,  the  city  founded  by  Ascanius, 
the  son  of  ^neas,  and  then  collecting  their  fellow-shepherds 
and  an  indiscriminate  rabble,  and  founding  a  town  named 
Rome,  from  Romulus,  the  elder  of  the  twins,  on  the  hills 
where  they  had  been  miraculously  saved  and  educateo. 

The  religion  of  Rome  having,  probably,  had  a  similar  ori^ 
with  that  of  Greece,  strongly  resembled  it ;  and  the  Greciah 
system  was,  in  a  great  measure,  afterwards  adopted  by  tbf* 
Romans.  Religion  was,  however,  in  Rome,  at  all  times, 
much  more  an  afiair  of  state  than  in  Greece. 

*  Niebuhr  has  been  followed  in  this  view  of  the  early  history  of  Rome. 


JHAP.  VI.  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  87 

The  first  constitution  of  Rome,  whatever  her  origin,  waa 
monarcnical.  Romulus  the  warrior,  and  Nunia  the  legislator, 
who  appear  in  history  as  her  two  first  kings,  it  is  possible, 
never  existed.  The  first  undoubted  historic  fact  of  this  early 
period,  is  the  migration  of  the  Albans  to  Rome  when  their 
city  was  destroyed,  the  Roman  writers  say,  by  Tullus,  the 
king  of  Rome ;  strong  circumstances  intimate,  by  the  Latins, 
who  afterwards  possessed  her  territory.  Ancus,  the  suc- 
ceeding monarch,  extended  the  Roman  dominions  to  the  sea, 
and  built  the  port  of  Ostia  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  His 
successor  was  named  Tarquinius.  The  legendary  history 
says  he  was  a  Tuscan  of  Greek  descent,  and,  in  its  usual 
style,  marks  his  arrival  at  Rome  by  a  miracle :  probability  is 
on  the  side  of  the  supposition  of  his  having  been  a  Latin,  or 
of  some  kindred  nation.  He  greatly  extended  the  Roman 
power,  increased  and  beautified  the  city  of  Rome,  embanked 
the  Tiber,  built  the  huge  sewers  for  the  drainage  of  the  city, 
which  still  exist,  and  commenced  the  erection  on  the  Capitol 
of  the  united  temples  of  the  three  great  gods  of  Rome. 

Tarquinius  fell,  it  is  said,  by  assassination ;  and  the  vacant 
throne  was  occupied  by  an  Etrurian  named  Mastarna,  a  con- 
dottiere,  or  leader  of  mercenary  troops,  who  had  come  to 
Rome  and  entered  the  service  of  Tarquinius.  Having  changed 
his  appellation,  he  appears  in  history  under  the  name  of  Ser- 
vius  Tuliius;  but  the  legend  of  Servius,  born  of  a  maid-ser- 
vant who  had  conceived  by  the  fire-god,  and  around  whose 
infant  brows  lambent  flames  had  played,  bears  not  the  slight- 
est resemblance  to  the  history  of  the  Etrurian  captain  Mas- 
tania.  Servius  continued  the  works  commenced  by  Tarquin- 
ius, and  immortalized  his  memory  by  the  constitution  which 
bears  his  name.  A  conspiracy  of  the  principal  citizens,  who 
were  displeased  at  the  changes  he  had  introduced,  deprived 
Servius  of  his  life ;  and  his  throne  was  occupied  by  a  grand- 
jn  of  Tarquinius.  This  monarch  was  magnificent  and  princely 
n  his  ideas ;  he  was  successful  in  war,  and  raised  Rome  to  a 
high  degree  of  power;  but  he  is  said  to  have  been  haughty, 
cruf?l,  and  tyrannic.  An  act  of  violence  done  by  one  of  his 
sons  is  related  to  have  roused  the  indignation  of  the  people ; 
Tarquinius  and  his  family  were  expelled,  and  the  kingly  au- 
thority abolished. 

The  Romans  were  originally  divided  into  three  Tribes, 
each  tribe  subdivided  into  ten  Curite,  and  each  of  thcpe  latter 
into  ten  Gentes,  or  houses.  A  representative  of  each  gens 
eat  in  the  senate.  In  the  time  of  the  earlier  kings  we  find, 
howevei ,  but  two  tribes  sending  members  to  the  senate ;  the 
third  was  subsequently  admitted  to  that  privilege.     These 


88  mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PAST  L 

three  tribes  were  the  orig-inal  citizens  of  Rome,  the  Populus ; 
and  tliere  were,  besides  them  and  their  slaves,  a  body  of  peo- 
ple called  Clients,  foreigners,  who,  from  various  causes,  had 
removed  from  their  own  country  to  Rome,  and  settled  there 
under  the  protection  of  Roman  citizens,  who,  as  their  patrons, 
are  called  Patres  and  Patricians,  words  originally  synony- 
mous. In  the  reign  of  Tullus,  a  new  body  began  to  be  formed 
by  the  migration  of  the  Albans  to  Rome ;  this  was  called  the 
Plebs.  It  contained  all  ranks  of  society,  both  nobles  and  com 
mons,  of  the  migrating  people,  and  mostly  retained  its  prop- 
erty in  its  lands ;  but  it  had  no  share  in  the  government,  or 
in  the  public  lands,  which  were  enjoyed  by  the  patricians  on 
the  payment  of  a  tenth  of  their  produce  to  the  state :  it  formed 
the  infantry  of  the  army,  had  no  right  of  intermarriage  with 
the  patricians,  lived  apart  from  them,  and  was  opposed  to  them 
in  interest. 

The  patrician  gentes,  being  a  closed  body,  did  not  admit 
of  their  vacancies  being  filled  up,  and  they  continually  dimin- 
ished in  number.  The  plebeians  were,  on  the  other  hand, 
receiving  constant  accessions.  Tarquinius  I.,  after  a  good 
deal  of  opposition,  succeeded  in  forming  three  new  tribes  out 
of  the  plebeians,  and  adding  them  to  the  patrician  tribes.  His 
successor  went  still  further ;  he  divided  all  the  plebeians  into 
thirty  local  tribes,  independent  of  the  patrician  ones;  and 
then,  to  combine  the  two  orders  more  effectually,  constituted 
a  mingled  aristocracy  and  timocracy,  by  dividing  all  the  peo- 
ple into  Centuries,  for  the  purposes  of  war,  and  of  passing 
laws  and  electing  magistrates.  It  was  thus  composed :  the 
three  original  tribes  and  the  three  formed  by  Tarquinius  were 
first ;  to  these  Servius  added  twelve  centuries,  composed  of 
the  most  wealthy  of  the  plebeians ;  and  these  eighteen  were 
to  supply  the  cavalry  of  the  army :  hence  the  whole  were 
called  Equites.  The  remainder  of  the  plebeians  were  di 
vided,  according  to  their  property,  into  five  Classes,  subdi 
vided  into  centuries ;  and  the  rest  of  the  people  were  put  into 
other  centuries.  The  classes  fiirnished  the  infantry  of  the 
army ;  those  not  in  the  classes,  the  baggage-train,  &c.  When 
the  centuries  were  assembled  in  the  Field  of  Mars,  their  place 
of  meeting,  laws,  and  other  matters,  previously  prepared  by 
the  senate,  were  laid  before  them ;  the  equestrian  centuries 
voted  first,  and  tlien  the  first  class :  and  the  number  of  cen- 
turies in  this  class  was  so  great  in  proportion  to  those  in  the 
remaining  ones,  that  if  they  agreed  with  the  equestrian  cen- 
turies, the  majority  was  attained,  and  there  was  no  necessity 
for  calling  up  any  more  of  the  classes.  The  patricians  had 
afterwards,  in  their  curiae,  the  power  of  adopting  or  rejecting 


a 
8 

G 
0 

c3 


Afliarch  of  LaodicBa. 


CHAP.  VL  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  91 

the  measure  which  had  passed  the  centuries.  The  legislator's 
object  of  giving-  power  to  wealth  and  birth  was  thus  fully  at- 
tained ;  and  but  for  the  useless  injustice  of  the  patricians,  who 
could  not  endure  to  part  with  ever  so  little  of  their  privileges, 
Rome  might  have  become,  long  ere  she  did,  the  mistress  of 
the  world. 

The  form  of  government  adopted  by  the  Romans  on  the 
expulsion  of  their  kings,  was  that  of  placing  the  executive  in 
the  hands  of  two  magistrates,  to  be  chosen  annually  from  the 
patricians.  These  magistrates  were  originally  called  Praetors, 
afterwards  Consuls,  and  tliey  held  the  full  kingly  power,  only 
divested  of  its  priestly  dignity. 

Rome  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  power  under  her  kings. 
By  a  treaty  made  in  the  first  year  of  the  republic  with  the  b.  c. 
Carthaginians,  which  has  fortunately  been  preserved,  it  ap-  609- 
pears  that  she  was  mistress  of  the  whole  coast  from  Ostia  to 
Terracina,  and  traded  with  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa. 

The  Tuscans —  War  with  Porsenna. 

The  country  to  the  right  of  the  Tiber  was  inhabited  by  a 
people  called  Etrurians,  or  Tuscans.  Manners,  language,  and 
religion  distinguished  them  from  the  neighboring  nations. 
They  possessed  twelve  cities  in  the  country  called  Etruria, 
and  an  equal  number  in  northern  Italy,  about  the  Po.  The 
current  opinion  was,  that  they  were  a  colony  from  Maeonia, 
who  came  by  sea  and  conquered  the  inhabitants  of  Etruria, 
and  then  extended  their  conquests  northwards:  the  more 
probable  supposition  is,  that  they  were  a  nation  who  entered 
Italy  on  the  north-east,  and  spread  their  conquests  southwards. 
At  the  period  we  now  treat  of,  they  were  fast  approaching 
the  acme  of  their  power,  which,  though  brilliant,  was  tran- 
sient ;  for  liberty  was  not  in  Etruria :  no  free  land  owners, 
like  the  Roman  plebs,  formed  for  her  an  invincible  infantry. 
The  Tuscan  Lucumones,  or  nobles,  ruled  over  vassals  similar 
to  the  Helots  of  Laconia,  or  the  Penestse  of  Thessaly. 

It  was  to  this  people  that  the  Tarquinii  addressed  them- 
selves for  aid  to  regain  their  lost  dominions,  after  an  attempt 
to  recover  them  by  treachery,  in  which  even  the  sons  of 
Brutus,  the  expeller  of  the  tyrant,  were  engaged,  had  failed. 
The  Veientians  are  said  to  have  taken  arms  in  their  favor; 
a  battle  took  place,  in  which  the  consul  Brutus,  and  Aruns,  a 
son  of  the  banished  tyrant,  fell  by  mutual  wounds,  and  vic- 
tory declared  for  Rome.  The  legend  relates,  that  Tarqtiinius 
then  invoked  the  aid  of  Porsenna,  king  of  Clusiuin,  a  powerful 
Tuscan  prince,  who  marched  against  Rome ;  and  though  his- 
tory seeks  to  veil  the  disgrace  of  surrender,  by  marvelloiia 


92  filSTOET  OF  THE  WOBLD.  PAST  I. 

tales  of  the  valor  of  Codes,  the  intrepidity  of  Miaciua,  the 
heroism  of  the  female  hostages,  and  the  magnanimity  of  Por- 
senna,  the  ungrateful  truth  is  still  apparent,  that  Rome  was 
amerced  in  one-third  of  her  territory,  and  prohibited  the  use 
of  iron,  except  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  Etrurians  now 
extended  their  dominion  into  Latium ;  before  Aricia  they  met 
a  defeat  from  Aristodemus,  the  Greek  tyrant  of  Cuma; 
and  Eome  seized  this  opportunity  of  regaining  independ- 
ence. 

Tarquinius  and  his  claims  had  been  neglected  by  Porsenna. 

15  (,_  He  now  roused  the  Latins  to  arms  in  his  cause.     A  great  and 

4'.)5  decisive  battle  is  said  to  have  taken  place  on  the  banks  of  the 

lake  Regillus,  in  which  the  fortune  of  Rome  again  triumphed, 

and  the  bafied  tyrant  fled  to  Aristodemus  at  Cuma,  where 

he  died. 

Dictator — Secession —  Tribunes. 

The  constitution  devised  by  Servius  was  just  and  equita- 
ble, calculated  to  unfold  and  bring  to  maturity  the  various 
elements  which  composed  the  Roman  state ;  but  it  was  check- 
ed and  nearly  smothered  by  Tarquinius  the  Tyrant.  On  his 
expulsion,  the  patricians,  who  felt  their  need  of  the  cordial 
support  of  the  plebeians,  restored  it  in  some  measure.  The 
consuls  were  elected  by  the  centuries,  and  the  Valerian  law 
secured  the  plebeians  in  their  life,  property  and  honor. 

But  when  Tarquinius  was  no  longer  an  object  of  terror, 
and  the  Etrurian  and  Latin  wars  were  ended,  the  patricians 
sought  to  bring  back  matters  to  their  former  state,  or  rather 
to  a  worse;  for  during  the  monarchy,  the  king  was  the  natu- 
ral protector  of  the  plebeians.  By  the  Valerian  law,  the  ple- 
beians had  been  given  the  same  right  of  appeal  from  the  sen- 
tence of  a  magistrate,  and  of  trial  by  their  peers,  which  had 
always  been  possessed  by  the  patricians;  but  this  extended 
to  only  a  mile  from  the  city.  This  right  of  appeal  lay  even 
jgg  against  the  sentence  of  the  consuls.  To  evade  this  law  and 
deprive  the  plebeians  of  their  safety  even  within  the  citj^  a 
magistracy  named  the  Dictatorship  was  instituted,  an  office 
of  Latin  origin.  The  dictator  was  chosen  by  the  senate,  and 
approved  of  by  the  patricians:  his  power  while  in  office  was 
regal;  no  ajjpeal  lay  from  his  sentence.  At  first  even  the 
patricians  had  no  appeal,  though  they  afterwards  obtained  it. 
It  was,  in  fact,  a  power  directed  against  the  plebeians,  who 
were  always  terrified  at  the  creation  of  this  magistrate. 

The  patricians  kept  exclusive  possession  of  the  public  do- 
mains. Having  the  government  in  their  own  hands,  they  no 
longer  paid  a  tenth  to  the  state.  Taxes,  wars,  famine,  re- 
duced great  numbers  of  the  plebeians  to  distress;  they  were 


CHAi.  VI.  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  VVAHS.  93 

forced  to  borrow  money  at  an  usurious  inte.ost  ^'he  p«tri 
cians,  or  their  clients  in  their  name,  were  the  prii^cipai  credi- 
tors. The  law  of  Servius,  forbidding  pledging  of  the  person 
for  debt,  had  been  abolished.  The  Nexi*  were  continuallj 
brought  before  the  prtetor's  tribunal,  and  made  Addicti. 
Every  patrician  house  was  a  jail  for  debtors ;  and  after  everj 
court-day,  in  times  of  distress,  droves  of  sentenced  debtors 
with  their  sons  and  grandchildren,  might  be  seen  driven  off 
in  chains  to  these  dungeons. 

The  grievances  of  the  plebeians  were  intolerable,  yet  then 
appeared  no  remedy.  While  they  were  in  this  state  of  un- 
certainty, an  old  man  one  day  broke  from  his  prison  in  chains, 
and  covered  with  rags :  he  appealed  to  the  Quirites  to  pro- 
tect him,  enumerated  the  battles  he  had  fought,  recounted 
the  causes  of  his  misfortunes,  and  showed  the  bloody  marks 
of  his  creditor's  cruelty.  The  pity  and  indignation  of  the 
people  were  excited ;  all  were  clamorous  for  relief.  The 
senate  knew  not  what  to  do ;  they  ordered  a  levy  against  the 
Volscians ;  the  people  refused  to  enlist  Tlie  consul  Serviliua 
issued  a  proclamation  allowing  those  who  were  in  slavery  foi 
debt  to  serve,  and  declaring  that  as  long  as  a  soldier  was  un 
der  arms,  his  family  should  remain  in  undisturbed  enjoyment 
of  his  property.  The  legions  were  filled  up,  and  the  army 
soon  returned  covered  with  conquest  and  laden  with  booty  i 
but  the  hopes  of  the  plebeians  were  disappointed.  Next  year 
they  again  refused  to  serve  in  the  legions.  Valerius  was 
made  dictator,  and  he  issued  a  proclamation  similar  to  that  of 
Scrvilius.  The  people  trusted  in  the  character  of  Valerius, 
and  the  power  of  the  dictatorship.  The  army  was  victorious; 
but  even  Valerius  could  not  overcome  the  obduracy  of  the 
senate,  influenced  by  the  unbending  tyrannic  spirit  of  Appius 
Claudius. 

The  dictator's  army  had  been  disbanded ;  those  of  the  con- 
suls were  still  in  the  field.  An  msurrection  broke  out  The 
legions  ippomted  L.  Sicinius  Bellutus  their  leader,  crossed 
the  Anio,  and  occupied  the  Sacred  Mount.  The  plebeians  in 
the  city  and  its  vicinity  retired  to  the  Aventine  and  Esquiline 
hills  of  the  city:  the  patricians  and  their  clients  occupied  the 
Palatme,  Capitoline,  Quirinal,  and  Cclian :  these  were  all 
separate  and  fortified.  Matters  might  have  come  to  blood- 
shed, but  that  the  power  of  the  two  parties  was  pretty  nearly 
balanced,  and  the  dread  of  external  enemies  made  them 
averse  to  weaken  themselves.     The  patricians  formed  an  al- 

•  Those  who  were  in  debt  under  oblication  to  pay  after  a  ct-rlain  period 
were  called  JVeii ,  Ihoee  who  failed  to  pay  and  were  by  the  prator  delivered 
•ver  to  their  creditors  were  called  Jlddicti. 


B.  C 


94  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I. 

liance  with  the  liatms :  they  then  deputed  ten  of  the  princi- 
pal memberB  of  their  body  to  treat  with  the  plebeians,  and 
peace  was  ultimately  established  and  sworn  to  between  the 
two  orders.  By  this  the  patricians  sought  to  separate  the  in 
terest  of  the  multitude  from  that  of  the  men  of  rank :  to  the 
latter  they  conceded  nothing,  gave  them  admittance  to  none 
of  the  honors  of  the  state ;  to  appease  the  former,  they  con- 
sented to  give  force  to  the  Valerian  law,  to  cancel  all  debts, 
and  releise  all  enslaved  debtors.  But  the  law  of  debt  re- 
mained unaltered. 

This  secession  and  treaty  were  rendered  memorable  by  the 
183  institution  of  the  Tribunate,  an  inviolate  popular  magistracy, 
established  for  the  protection  of  the  plebs,  which  proved  a 
salutary  check  on  the  excesses  of  either  party ;  was  the  chief 
mean  of  preserving  Rome  so  long  from  bloody  dissensions ; 
but,  like  every  human  institution,  growing  pernicious  when 
it  had  outlived  its  original  purpose,  afterwards  became  a  chief 
instrument  in  the  overthrow  of  liberty. 

Spurius  Cassius,  and  the  Agrarian  Law. 

The  bonds  of  alliance  were  now^  drawn  closer  between  the 
Romans  and  the  Latins,  and  a  third  nation,  the  Ilernicians, 
was  taken  into  the  alliance.  According  to  the  terms  of  it,  all 
spoils  and  conquests  were  to  be  divided,  share  and  share 
alike,  among  the  three  nations. 

Sp.  Cassius  Viscellinus,  the  Roman  consul,  was  the  person 
who  concluded  this  league.  He,  some  time  after,  brought 
forward  the  first  Agrarian  law,  was  accused  before  the  curiae 
of  aiming  at  the  sovereignty,  was  condenmed,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock,  his  house  razed,  his  goods  sold,  and 
the  produce  dedicated  to  Ceres. 

The  Roman  Agrarian  laws  have  frequently  been  repre- 
sented as  unjust  and  iniquitous.  A  moment's  consideration 
of  their  nature  will  prove  such  a  supposition  to  be  groundless. 
It  was  the  practice  of  Rome,  and  the  Italian  states  in  general, 
on  making  a  conquest,  to  take  a  portion,  generally  a  third,  of 
the  enemy's  land.  This  then  became  public  land,  and  waa 
occupied  for  tillage  or  grazing,  by  the  citizens  of  the  state 
which  had  acquired  it ;  they  paid  a  tenth  of  the  produce  by 
way  of  rent,  and  the  land  was  subject  to  resumption  by  the  state. 
While  the  Roman  citizens  consisted  of  the  three  patrician 
tribes  alone,  there  was  no  cause  for  murmur ;  but  when  the 
plebs  gradually  grew  up,  and  as  the  mfantry  of  the  army  was 
the  chief  instrument  m  the  acquisition  of  public  land,  they 
naturally  claimed  to  have  a  share  m  what  was  gamed.  The 
kings,  therefore,  were  in  the  habit  of  assignmg  small  portions 


0 


us 
a 

0 

CIS 
in 

10 
41 


-HAP.  VI.  ROME  TllAu  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  97 

jf  the  public  land  jis  property  to  the  plebeians,  and  thus  the 
latter  grew,  by  degrees,  to  be  the  only  or  principal  land-own- 
ers in  the  state.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquinii,  a  dis- 
tribution of  the  crovvn  lands  was  made  among  the  plebeians; 
but  the  loss  of  the  lands  beyond  the  Tiber,  and  tlie  heavy 
weight  of  taxation  which  fell  almost  entirely  on  them,  now 
that  the  patricians,  having  gotten  the  government  into  tlieir 
own  hands,  no  longer  paid  the  tenths  off  the  public  land, 
made  the  plebeians  more  clearly  discern  the  injustice  with 
which  they  were  treated,  and  be  clamorous  for  an  Agrarian 
law,  i.  e.  a  law  which  was  not,  as  has  been  erroneously  sup- 
posed, to  take  their  property  from  the  rich  and  give  it  to  the 
poor,  but  which  would  make  the  patricians  give  up  a  portion 
of  the  public  land  which  they  occupied  without  paying  any 
rent  or  taxes,  to  be  divided  in  small  lots  among  those  whose 
blood  had  purchased  it 

The  Decemvirs  and  the  Twelve  Tables. 

After  the  death  of  Cassius,  the  struggles  between  the 
orders  continued.  The  Romans  were,  in  fact,  two  nations 
within  the  same  walls,  so  distinct  as  not  even  to  have  the 
cannubium  or  right  of  intermarriage.  The  plebeians  saw 
that  political  equality  was  not  yet  attainable ;  but  they  felt 
the  absolute  necessity  of  legal  equality,  and  they  insisted  on 
a  general  code  of  laws  being  formed.  After  a  most  obstinate 
resistance  on  the  part  of  tlie  patricians,  it  was,  at  length, 
agreed  to  appoint  ten  persons  to  form  a  code ;  and  deputies, 
it  is  added,  were  sent  to  the  Greek  cities  in  Italy  to  collect  b  c 
tlieir  wisest  laws,  and  bring  them  home  for  the  use  of  tlie  <5j 
legislators. 

Tlie  legislators  were  in  number  ten,  hence  called  Decem- 
virs. They  were  all  patricians,  and  invested  with  unlimited  . 
powers ;  the  consulate,  tribunate,  and  quaestorate,  were  sus- 
pended during  their  magistracy.  The  decemvirs  proved 
themselves  worthy  of  this  confidence.  They  governed  ten 
days  alternately,  and  each  member  of  the  college  rendered  to 
those  who  appealed  from  the  sentence  of  his  colleagues  the 
assistance  which  the  tribunes  used  to  give.  They  collected 
all  the  former  traditionary  laws,  selected  those  tliat  were 
salutary,  and  formed  a  general  code,  instead  of  the  former 
partial  and  local  rights.  The  two  orders  were  formed  into 
one  nation,  tlie  patricians  and  their  clients  being  received 
into  the  plebeian  local  tribes.  The  Comitia  of  the  centuries 
were  declared  to  be  the  sole  jurisdiction  in  capital  ca.sos,  and 
ai.y  charge  affecting  liberty' and  civic  rights,  and  Lhus  tlie 
I) 


98  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOELD.  PAKT  I 

equality  of  the  citizens  was  decidedly  pronounced;  for  all  or 
ders  were  comprised  in  these  comitia. 

The  decemvirs  having,  with  honor  to  themselves  and  ad- 
vantage to  the  state,  performed  the  duties  imposed  upon 
them,  and  drawn  up  a  code  in  ten  tables,  laid  down  their 
office.  But,  under  pretext  of  something  still  remaining  to  be 
done,  the  office  was  continued  for  another  year,  and  ten  per- 
sons, five  patricians  and  five  plebeians,  chosen.  These  enacted 
two  more  tables,  thus  making  the  whole  twelve.  But  they 
governed  with  haughtiness  and  tyranny ;  the  senate  stood  in 
awe  of  them ;  the  people,  having  now  no  tribunitian  protec- 
tion, trembled  before  them,  while  the  younger  patricians  ex- 
ulted in  the  license  given  to  them,  and  maintained  the  cause 
of  the  decemvirs.  The  year  passed, — no  sign  of  their  laying 
down  their  office :  the  tyranny  seemed  intended  to  be  perpet- 
ual. The  lust  of  Appius,  the  chief  of  them,  saved  the  state. 
He  had  seen  Virginia,  the  daughter  of  Virginius,  a  centurion, 
crossing  the  forum  in  her  way  to  school ;  a  freedman  of  his, 
suborned  by  him,  claimed  her  as  his  slave ;  her  lover  hastened 
to  the  camp  to  inform  her  father,  who  hurried  to  Rome.  Vir- 
ginia was  brought  before  the  tribunal  of  the  decemvir,  and  by 
him  assigned  as  a  slave  to  his  freedman :  her  father,  seeing 
the  honor  of  his  family  about  to  be  stained,  caught  up  a 
butcher's  knife  and  plunged  it  into  the  bosom  of  his  innocent 
child ;  then,  with  the  bloody  weapon  reeking  in  his  hand,  has- 
tened to  the  camp,  told  his  comrades  what  he  had  done,  and 
invoked  their  aid.  The  army  marched  to  Rome,  and  posted 
itself  on  the  Aventine :  the  decemvirate  was  abolished,  and  the 
tribunate  of  the  people  restored.  Appius  and  Oppius,  the 
most  guilty  of  the  decemvirs,  died  in  prison  by  their  own 
hand  •  their  colleagues  went  into  voluntary  exile. 

Spurius  Mcelius, 

The  consulate  was  restored ;  two  members  of  the  illustrious 
houses  of  the  Valerii  and  the  Horatii  were  the  first  consuls. 
They  carried  laws  in  favor  of  plebeian  liberty.  When  their 
year  expired,  the  tribunes  brought  in  a  bill  to  enable  the  peo- 
ple to  choose,  at  their  option,  patrician  or  plebeian  consuls. 
The  chief  patricians  assembled  to  consult  how  to  obviate  the 
fancied  danger  of  their  order ;  C.  Claudius  even  proposed  to 
murder  the  tribunes ;  his  project  was  rejected  with  indigna- 
tion, and  the  two  orders  agreed,  that,  instead  of  two  consuls, 
there  should  be  six  military  tribunes,  three  from  eacVf  ordei , 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  government.  But  the  people,  as 
yet,  gained  not  much ;  for  the  patricians,  by  management  and 
union,  generally  contrived  to  procure  for  themselves  tlie 


Albuquerque. 


CHAP.  VL  aOME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  101 

whole,  or  the  greater  part,  of  the  tribunarian  authority.  Con 
suls,  too,  were  frequently  chosen,  and  they  and  military  tri- 
bunes alternated. 

On  the  whole,  during  this  period,  the  rights  of  the  plebe- 
ians were  advancing;  some  of  their  order  beca/iiU  military 
tribunes,  the  connubium  between  them  and  the  patricians 
was  established,  and  thus  the  bonds  of  amity  and  kindness  be- 
tween the  orders  were  drawn  more  closely.  Yet  patrician 
party-spirit  and  cruelty  still  occasionally  exhibited  them- 
selves. A  crying  sin  of  the  senate  of  this  period  was  the 
murder  of  Sp.  Mff;lius,  a  plebeian  knight,  who,  in  a  time  of 
dearth,  expended  his  private  fortune  in  the  purchase  of  com 
in  Tuscany  to  distribute  among  the  poor  of  his  order.  The 
senate  dreaded  the  influence  of  Mselius,  and  feared  that  he 
might  make  good  the  claims  of  his  order  to  a  share  in  the 
government.  He  was  accused  of  aiming  at  the  tyranny. 
The  venerable  Cincinnatus  was  created  dictator  to  avert  the 
pretended  danger.  Maelius  was  summoned  before  his  tribu- 
nal ;  he  saw  his  enemies  bent  on  his  destruction,  and  took 
refuge  among  the  people ;  C.  Servilius  Ahala,  the  master  of 
the  knights,  pursued  and  cut  him  down,  when  he  might  have 
seized  him  and  brought  Iiim  before  the  dictator's  tribunal. 
Party-spirit  applauded  the  deed ;  succeeding  ages  blindly  ac- 
quiesced in  the  applause :  the  enlightened  inquirer  now  be- 
holds it  in  all  its  atrocity,  and  condemns  the  illegal  and  in- 
iquitous procedure.  The  voice  of  history  cries  without  ceas- 
ing, Do  no  evil,  for  a  time  will  arrive  when  the  truth,  how 
artfully  soever  veiled,  will  come  forth  and  be  apparent 

Wars  anterior  to  the  Gallic  Invasion. 

During  the  period  whose  internal  history  we  have  just 
been  tracing,  Rome  was  not  free  from  external  disturbance. 
In  the  year  272,  a  bloody  war  broke  out  between  Rome  and 
Veii,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Etrurian  cities.  For- 
tune was  rather  favorable  to  the  latter,  for  volunteers  flocked 
from  all  parts  of  Etruria  to  recruit  her  forces.  The  Romaiw 
saw  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  fixing  the  seat  of  war 
in  the  enemies'  country.  A  fort  was  raised  on  the  banks  of 
the  Cremera,  a  stream  in  the  Veientian  territory.  The  Fabian 
gens  undertook  the  defence  of  it.  They  marched  out  of  Rome 
to  the  number  of  306,  with  their  clients,  amounting  to  4000 
err  5000,  and  settled  there.  Notwithstanding  a  peace,  they 
ravaged  the  country.  By  a  display  of  bo«ty,  the  Veientians 
lucceeded  in  drawing  the  greater  part  of  them  into  an  am- 
bush, where  they  were  cut  to  pieces;  the  fort  was  then 
•tormed,  and  the  remainder  of  the  garrison  put  to  the  sword. 
9* 


102  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOELD.  ^^"^  ^ 

Tradition  relates  that  of  the  entire  Fabian  gens,  but  one  sur- 
vived-^ child  who  had  been  left  at  R«me  The  Veientiana 
now  carried  on  the  war  vigorously  against  Rome :  they  feed 
their  camp  on  the  Janiculum,  but  were  defeated,  and  their 
well-stored  camp  became  the  prey  of  the  victors. 

Almost  unceasing  warfare  prevailed  at  this  period  between 
the  Romans,  the  Latins,  and  Hernicians  on  the  one  side»  and 
theVolscians  and  the  .Equians  on  the  other,  without  either 
party  acquiring  much  advantage  A  Sabme  war,  too,  termi- 
nated  in  favor  of  Rome;  for  a  kmdred  stem,  the  Samnites, 
was  now  extending  itself  southwards,  and  drawmg  to  its  ban- 
ners the  active  and  adventurous  spirits  oi"    le  nation. 

The  truce  with  Veii  having  expired,  the  war  agam  raged. 
Fiden^  revolted,  and  joined  Veii.     The  seat  of  war  was  now 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber.     The  Etrurians  advanced  to  the 
gates  of  Rome;  they  were  repulsed,  and  forced  to  retire  be- 
londthe  Anio.     Fidens  was  besieged  and  taken.     Another 
truce  for  twenty  years  was  made  with  Veil,  and  indefinitely 
nrotracted.     Veii  was  a  peaceable,  trading  town ;  her  desire 
was  tranquillity.    Rome  was  a  nation  of  soldiers.  Veil  sought 
to  prolong  the  truce.     Rome,  as  a  hostile  race,  havmg  burst 
over  the°Alps,   and  overrun  the  Circumpadanian  Ltruria, 
thought  she  had  now  a  favorable  opportunity  for  conquering 
her  rival,  who  could  not  look  for  aid  to  the  more  distant  citiea 
of  Etruria:  she  therefore  refused  to  protract  the  truce,    ^th 
sides  took  arms.     Capena  and  Falerii  alone  aided  Veil    Con 
quest  of  territory  was  the  object  of  the  Romans:  regular  pay 
was  ^iven  to  the  army;  a  line  of  forts  was  drawn  around  the 
hostile  town;  the  siege  was  extended  to  a  duration  equal  to 
that  of  Troy.     Camillus,  one  of  the  greatest  names  m  Roman 
I94     tory,  commanded,  and  Veii  at  length  fell,  entered  by  a  mine 
secretly  wrought  by  the  besiegers.     The  Romans  were  en- 
riched  by  the  spoil.     CamQlus  sullied  his  glory  by  secretmg 
a  part,  for  which  he  went  into  exUe.     The  Jakmg  o^  Veil  is 
an  historical  fact;  the  details  are  poetic  fiction.     Who  can 
now  believe  that  the  formation  of  the  Emissarius,  which  still 
carries  off  the  superfluous  waters  of  the  Alban  lake  a  passage 
of  3700  paces  in  length,  six  feet  m  height,  and  three  and  a 
half  in  width,  was  the  work  of  a  smgle  year,  and  executed  by 
a  people  who  had  little  or  no  interest  m  the  adjacent  lando, 
and  tha*.  the  fate  of  a  city  beyond  the  Tiber  depended  on  the 
emission  of  the  waters  of  that  lake  1 

The  Gauls— Capture  of  Rome 
Mistress  of  the  Veientian  territory,  Rome  now  looked  for- 
ward to  farther  conquest  in  Etruria:  but  a  storm,  whose  first 


CnAr.  VI.  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIU  WARS.  103 

effects  she  probably  contemplated  with  complacency,  was  des- 
tined to  crush  her  for  a  season  to  the  earth.  Rome  was  tc 
fall  before  the  Gauls. 

The  Kelts  now  first  appear  in  history.  This  race,  one  Ot* 
the  first  that  occupied  Europe,  inhabited,  at  this  period,  Gaul 
and  Britain,  and  a  great  part  of  Iberia.  Attracted  by  the 
accounts  of  the  climate  and  fertility  of  Italy,  a  large  body 
of  the  Gauls  passed  the  Alps,  and  poured  down  on  the  coun- 
try about  the  Po ;  they  quickly  conquered  the  Etrurians  who 
dwelt  there ;  the  Umbrians  submitted ;  the  Gauls  extended 
themselves  to  the  Adriatic,  crossed  the  Apennines,  and  laid 
siege  to  Clusium  in  Etruria.  The  Clusians  called  on  the 
Romans  for  aid,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Gallic  camp  to 
offer  their  mediation.  This  was  rejected  by  the  Gauls.  The 
Roman  envoys  entered  the  town,  and,  neglectful  of  the  laws 
of  nations,  took  part  in  a  battle.  Q.  Fabius,  one  of  them, 
slew  a  Gallic  chief,  and  was  recognized.  The  Gauls  dis- 
patched an  embassy  to  Rome  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the 
offenders.  This  was  contumeliously  refused.  Breathing 
vengeance,  they  broke  up  from  before  Clusium,  and  marched 
for  Rome.  At  the  AUia,  eleven  miles  from  the  city,  they 
met  the  Roman  army.  A  signal  defeat  rendered  the  place  b.  e 
and  the  day  ever  detested  in  the  Roman  annals.  The  Gauls  38i 
speedily  appeared  before  the  walls  of  the  city,  forced  the 
gates,  and  found  it  deserted,  except  by  a  few  aged  men  of 
consular  rank.  These  they  slaughtered  in  cold  blood.  The 
remainder  of  the  people  had  sought  refuge  in  the  neighboring 
towns:  the  Vestal  virgins  and  the  sacred  things  had  been 
conveyed  to  Caere ;  the  Capitol  was  occupied  by  the  senate, 
and  about  1000  of  the  bravest  of  the  patrician  youth.  An 
attempt  to  take  the  Capitol  failed ;  the  Gauls  burned  the  city 
and  employed  themselves  in  plundering  excursions  into  the 
surrounding  country.  Autumn,  then  and  now  the  sickly  sea- 
son at  Rome,  came  on ;  the  besiegers  died  in  heaps,  a  compo- 
sition was  proposed,  and  the  Gauls  finally  agreed,  for  a  thou- 
sand pounds  weight  of  gold,  to  evacuate  Rome,  and  itfl  ter- 
ritory. Roman  vanity  invented  a  tale  of  Camillus,  who  had, 
though  in  exile,  been  appointed  dictator,  coming  up  with  his 
army  as  they  were  in  the  act  of  weighing  the  gold,  and  so 
signally  defeating  the  Gauls,  that  not  one  survived  to  carry 
home  the  news. 

Rebuilding  of  the  City — Manliu$. 

Rome  was  a  heap  of  rums.  Veii  equalled  it  in  magnitude, 
and  exceeded  it  in  beauty.  It  was  proposed  that  the  Roman 
oeople  should  migrate  thither :  the  senate  opposed  this  pro- 


104  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

iect;  the  people  were  wavering,  when  a  casual  word,  taken 
aa  an  omen,  decided  them  to  remain.  Within  a  year  the 
city  rose  from  its  ashes  with  little  of  beauty  or  regularity 
Veii  was  demolished  to  furnish  building  materials. 

War  was  renewed.  The  Tarquinienses,  a  people  of  Etru- 
ria,  took  the  field  against  tlie  Romans:  the  Volscians  and 
iEquians  were  again  in  arms :  the  Latins  and  Hernicians, 
though  a  century  had  elapsed  since  Sp.  Cassius  had  formed 
the  league  between  them  and  the  Romans,  separated  from 
them,  and  were  sometimes  opposed  to  them :  the  Gauls  again 
invaded  the  Roman  territory ;  yet  the  fortune  of  Rome  pre- 
vailed, and  her  generals  triumphed. 

But  Rome  was  internally  agitated:  the  heavy  rate  of  in- 
terest, the  odious  laws  of  debt,  the  poverty  of  the  people, 
and  the  cruelty  of  creditors,  nearly  produced  desperation. 
Touched  with  compassion,  Manlius,  the  savior  of  the  Capitol, 
a  man  of  generous  nature,  stood  forward  as  the  protector  of 
the  unfortunate,  and  even  sold  a  patrimonial  estate  to  relieve 
their  wants.  He  was  charged  with  defaming  the  govern 
ment,  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  was  afterwards  released, 
and  whether  he  then  meditated  plans  of  vengeance  is  uncer 
tain ;  but  he  finally  fell  a  victim  to  the  envy  and  tyrannica 
spirit  of  his  order,  who  now  lorded  it  uncontrolled  over  the 
broken-spirited  people.  Rome  was  on  the  very  point  of 
sinking  into  utter  insignificance  under  the  dominion  of  the 
short-sighted  patricians,  when  two  men  arose,  who,  by  firm- 
ness and  temperance,  raised  her  from  her  dejection,  and 
placed  her  in  the  road  which  led  with  certainty  to  her  future 
grandeur. 

The  Licinian  Rogations. 

874  In  the  year  of  Rome  378,  C.  Licinius  Stolo  and  L.  Sextius 
«rere  chosen  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  they  immediately 
brought  forward  their  celebrated  rogations,  which  operated 
such  a  mighty  change  in  Rome.  The  supreme  magistrates 
were  in  that  year  military  tribunes ;  the  people  were  full  of 
hope,  the  senate  of  fear.  If  the  rogations  passed  the  comitia, 
it  might  not  be  safe  to  refuse  assent  to  them.  They  sought 
to  avert  the  danger,  and  gained  over  the  colleagues  of  Li- 
cinius and  Sextius  to  interpose  their  veto  on  the  measure. 
Its  authors  were  not  dejected.  When  the  year  expired,  they 
refiised  to  allow  the  election  of  military  tribunes  to  proceed. 
The  republic  remained  for  five  or  six  years  under  Interregcs 
Licmius  and  Sextius  were  re-elected  every  year,  and  each 
year  more  and  more  of  the  friends  of  the  rogations  were 
chosen  to  be  their  colVagues.   The  people  were  firm  to  their 


4il  ' « 


\i^  mJit.  jtimi|l]u!lii.ii„  I |.,i||l| 


CHAP.  VI.  EOMt  riLL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  107 

popular  tribunes.  The  clients  had,  in  the  time  of  the  decem- 
virs, been  admitted  into  the  tribes ;  the  influence  of  the  pa- 
tricians waa  thereby  diminished ;  the  office  of  the  interrex 
being  but  for  five  days,  no  wars  could  be  carried  on :  the 
tribunes  allowed  no  one  to  be  imprisoned  for  debt.  Though 
the  neighboring  states  remained  at  peace,  yet  such  a  condition 
of  affairs  was  unsafe.  All  parties  wished  to  see  an  end  of 
it,  yet  the  senate  would  not  yield.  Twice  was  the  venerable 
Camillus  created  dictator  against  the  people,  twice  did  the 
dictatorial  power  fail  before  the  tribunarian.  Arts,  menaces, 
force,  were  tried  in  vain.  The  senate  would  willingly  have 
conceded  some  of  the  demands.  The  tribunes  incorporated 
all  into  one  bill,  and  would  have  all  or  none.  Camillus,  at 
length,  became  convinced  of  the  inutility  of  protracted  re- 
sistance. He  mediated  between  the  orders,  and  the  senate 
gave  their  consent  to  the  rogations. 

These  rogations  were,  1.  that  no  more  military  tribunes 
should  be  chosen,  but  consuls  only,  and  of  these  one  to  be  a 
plebeian ;  2.  that  one  half  of  the  guardians  of  the  Sibylline 
books  should  be  plebeians ;  3.  that  in  cases  of  debt,  all  the 
interest  already  paid  should  be  deducted  from  the  capital,  and 
the  residue  paid  in  three  equal  annual  instalments;  4.  an 
Agrarian  law :  of  which  the  principal  provisions  were,  tnat 
the  public  land  should  have  its  boundaries  marked  out ;  that 
every  Roman  citizen  should  be  entitled  to  enjoy  it;  that  no 
one  should  hold  more  than  500  jugera  of  it  in  arable  or 
plantation  land,  or  feed  more  than  100  head  of  black,  or  500 
of  small  cattle,  on  the  public  pasture ;  that  a  tenth  of  the 
produce  of  corn-land,  a  fifth  of  that  of  vineyards  and  planta- 
tions, and  so  much  a  head  grazing-money  for  cattle  should  be 
paid  to  the  state ;  that  this  tax  should  be  farmed  out  every 
lustrum  by  the  censors,  and  the  produce  of  it  appropriated  to 
the  payment  of  the  army  ;  that  the  possessors  of  the  public 
land  should  be  bound  to  employ  free  laborers  on  their  land 
in  a  rated  proportion  to  their  possession. 

The  plebeians  consented  that  the  consular  power  should  be 
diminished.  The  jurisdiction  was  separated  from  it,  and  com- 
mitted to  a  praetor,  whom  the  patricians  insisted  should  of 
right  belong  to  their  body;  and  as  the  praetor  ranked  with 
the  consuls,  and  might  be  styled  their  colleague,  they  that 
kept  two  out  of  three  places  to  themselves.  The  first  plebeian 
consul  was  L.  Sextius  Lateranus,  the  fellow-tribune  of  C. 
Lickiius  Stola 


108  fflSXOET  OF  THE  WOELD.  PABT  t 

Samnite  War. 

The  period  from  389  to  411  was  internally  spent  in  efforts, 
on  the  side  of  the  patricians,  to  do  away  with  the  Licinian 
law ;  externally  in  various  wars  with  the  Gauls,  Etruscans, 
Hernicians,  and  others;  and  victory  was,  as  usual,  on  the 
side  of  the  Romans. 

The  Samnites,  a  mountain  race,  descended,  it  is  said,  from 
the  Sabines,  certainly  akin  to  them,  had  been  for  some  tim 
spreading  themselves  to  the  south.  They  had  long  since 
made  themselves  masters  of  Capua,  the  wealthy  capital  of 
Campania,  where  they  rapidly  degenerated,  and  sank  into 
luxury.  Their  mountain  brethren  became  their  bitterest 
enemies.  In  the  year  412,  the  Campanians,  being  hard 
pressed  by  the  Samnites,  called  upon  Rome  for  alliance  and 
aid.  Aid  was  not  refused  ;  the  Romans  sent  an  embassy  to 
the  Samnites,  requesting  them  to  abstain  from  injuring  the 
allies  of  Rome.  Their  interference  was  haughtily  rejected  ; 
a  combined  Roman  and  Latin  army  entered  Campania.  Mount 
Gaurus,  which  overhangs  the  Lucrine  lake,  was  the  scene  of 
the  first  conflict  between  these  two  great  nations,  who  fougiit  for 
the  empire  of  Italy.  After  a  furious  conflict,  victory  declared 
for  Rome.  The  war  was  obstinately  continued,  though  to  the 
advantage  of  the  latter.  At  last  Rome,  jealous  of  Latium, 
made  a  peace  with  the  Samnites,  in  which  the  Latins  refused 
to  join. 

The  Latin  War. 

The  Latins  had  long  been  in  close  alliance  with  Rome.  In 
all  wars  they  composed  one  half  of  the  legions;  they  were 
mingled  in  the  manipuli,  or  companies,  and  their  general 
commanded  alternately  with  the  Roman.  Feeling  their 
power,  they  deemed  it  just  that  they  should  be  placed  on  a 
rooting  of  perfect  equality;  their  ambassadors  repaired  to 
Rome,  and  proposed  to  the  senate  that  the  two  nations  should 
form  one,  in  which  Rome  should  have  the  supremacy,  and 
which  should  be  denominated  from  her;  that  half  the  senate 
should  be  composed  of  Latins,  and  one  of  the  consuls  be  of 
that  nation.  These  just  propositions  were  rejected  witn 
scorn  and  indignation  by  the  haughty  Romans,  and  war,  little 
less  than  civil,  broke  out  between  the  long-united  nations. 

The  Latins  and  Campanians  were  still  at  war  with  the 
Samnites,  who  were  now  in  alliance  with  Rome.  Four  Ro- 
man legions,  by  a  rapid  march  through  the  mountains,  arrived 
•n  Campania,  and  joined  the  Samnite  army.  At  the  foot  of 
Vesuvius,  the  decisive  conflict  took  place:  Samnites  were 


CHAP.  VI.  ROME  TILL  THE  PUNIC  WARS.  109 

arrayed  against  Campanians,  Romans  against  Latins,  similar 
arms  and  tactics  against  each  other.  Victory  long  being 
doubtful,  the  front  ranks  in  the  left  wing  of  the  Romans  fcU 
back.  The  plebeian  consul  iJecius,  who  had  vowed  to  sacri- 
fice himself  for  Rome,  now  performed  his  vow :  consecrated 
by  the  pontifex,  and  clad  in  a  magnificent  robe,  he  rushed 
on  horseback  amidst  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  and  fell  covered 
with  wounds.  The  Latins  gave  way  before  the  renewed 
valor  of  the  Romans ;  and  the  other  consul,  Manlius,  waa 
equally  successful  on  his  side.  Scarcely  a  fourth  of  the 
Latin  army  escaped. 

The  loss  of  the  flower  of  her  troops  effectually  debilitated 
Latium:  town  after  town  submitted  to  the  Romans,  and  a 
bloody  and  cruel  vengeance  was  taken  by  that  haughty  people. 
The  people  of  Latium  were  divided ;  some  obtained  the  rank 
of  Roman  citizens,  others  were  deprived  of  their  lands  and 
their  rights.  They  were  forbidden  to  hold  national  diets,  or 
to  intermarry  or  acquire  lands  in  each  other's  territories; 
they  no  longer  served  in  the  Roman  legions.  With  the 
Volscians  and  Hernicians  they  formed  separate  cohorts. 

About  this  time,  Q..  Publilius  Philo,  being  dictator,  had 
three  laws  passed  which  completed  the  constitution.  One  of 
these  included  the  censorship  in  the  higher  offices,  which 
were  common  to  the  two  orders;  a  second  took  from  the 
curiae  the  power  of  putting  their  veto  on  any  law ;  the  third 
made  the  plebiscita,  or  decrees  of  the  tribes,  binding  on 
all  citizens.  By  these  means,  internal  discord  was  ended; 
and  Rome,  unretarded  by  domestic  dissensions,  could  now  ad- 
vance rapidly  in  the  career  of  universal  empire. 

War  with  Pyrrhus. 

Rome  was  now  mistress  of  Etruria,  Latium,  and  Campania. 
The  Samnites  had  aided  her  to  conquer  the  Latins  ;  a  gene- 
ral league  of  the  Samnites  and  their  kindred  mountain  tribes 
was  formed  against  the  menacing  power  of  Rome,  and  a 
fierce  war  broke  out,  in  which  a  Roman  army  endured  the 
disgrace  of  passing  under  the  yoke  at  the  Caudine  pass ;  but 
the  disgrace  was  speedily  effaced,  and  Samnium  reduced  to 
submission. 

Tarentum,  a  rich  and  luxurious  city  of  Southern  Italy,  b  «• 
had  taken  part  in  this  war,  and  grievously  insulted  the  Ro-  '^'^'■i 
mans.  Unable  to  defend  themselves,  the  Tarcntines  sought 
the  aid  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  a  prince  of  courage  and 
talent,  ready  to  ser/e  whoever  could  pny.  He  had  just 
gained  and  lost  Macedonia;  and  he  now  fed  himself  with  the 
nopes  of  becoming  the  Alexander  of  the  West ;  reckoned  on 
10 


110  HISTORY  OF  THB  WORLD.  PART  L 

a  speedy  conquest  of  Italy;  and  already,  in  his  ambitious 
views,  anticipated  that  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Africa.  He  there- 
fore willingly  acceded  to  the  desire  of  the  Tarentines,  and 
passed  over  to  Italy. 

For  the  first  time  the  arms  and  tactics  of  Greece  and  Rome 
came  into  collision.  In  the  first  two  battles,  fought  at  Pan- 
dosia  and  Asculum,  his  military  skill  and  his  elephants  gained 
the  victory  for  Pyrrhus ;  yet  with  so  much  loss,  that  he  made 
proposals  of  peace  to  the  Romans.  They  would  treat  only 
on  condition  of  his  quitting  Italy.  A  third  battle  was  fought 
near  Beneventum,  in  which  Pyrrhus  was  so  roughly  handled, 
27£  that  he  gave  up  all  hopes  of  conquest  in  Italy,  and  passed 
over  to  Sicily,  and  thence  to  Greece,  where  he  met  his  death, 
in  an  attempt  on  the  city  of  Argos,  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
The  Romans  now  reduced  all  Southern  Italy;  and  from  the 
Arno  to  Rhegium,  the  whole  peninsula  obeyed  the  city. 


«.  V. 


CHAP,  va 

ROME    TILL   THE    TIME    OF   THE   GRACCHI. 

First  Punic  War. 

The  island  of  Sicily  had  originally  been  colonized  by  the 
peo})le  who  inhabited  Italy.  The  Greeks  early  began  to  es- 
tablish colonies  there,  and  many  of  these  rapidly  grew  up  to 
be  powerful  states.  The  Carthaginians  also  settled  there. 
They  held  at  this  period  one  half  of  the  island,  and  their 
power  was  formidable  to  the  remainder.* 

Syracuse  was  the  chief  of  the  Grecian  colonies.  Ita 
founders  were  Dorians ;  its  constitution  was  therefore  at  first 
aristocratic ;  but  it  was  a  trading  city,  and  did  not  long  con- 
tinue to  be  so  governed.  The  beneficent  Gelo,  at  tlie  time 
when  Greece  was  assailed  by  Persia,  possessed  the  supreme 

106.  power  in  Syracuse.  Six  years  after  the  fatal  expedition  of  the 
Athenians  against  it,  Syracuse  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
Dionysius,  an  able,  talented,  and,  if  we  credit  a  modern  his- 
torian, a  useful  prince.     He  left  his  power  to  his  son,  of  the 

J67  same  name,  who  inherited  not  his  good  qualities.  His  cousin 
Dion,  and  then  the  Corinthian  Timoleon,  overthrew  his 
power.  The  Syracusans  had  not  virtue  enough  to  retain  their 
recovered  freedom.  Agathocles,  a  man  of  splendid  talents, 
seized  the  supreme  power.  He  was  the  terror  of  his  foes, 
ard  fbrmidablS  even  to  the  Carthaginians.     Close  pressed  in 

Sec  Carthage,  p.  59. 


PI!"'l!E!III!i!!!!!!i!!;rh!"!ll'"'l 


I 


■■\ 


CHAP    m.     ROME  TILL  THE  TIME  OP  THE  GRACCHI.  113 

war  by  them,  he  adopted  the  bold  resolution  of  carrying  the 
war  into  their  own  country.     He  passed  over  to  Africa,  and 
appeared  before  the  walls  of  Cartilage.     He  died  in  a  good  b  c 
old  age,  full  of  fame,  but  childless.  id'^ 

On  his  death  Syracuse  fell  into  confusion.  Pyrrhus  wa.« 
invited  over  from  Italy  to  no  purpose.  The  Mamertines,  a 
portion  of  the  mercenary  troops  whom  Agathocles  had  had 
in  pay,  seized  on  the  city  of  Messina,  and  murdered  the  in- 
habitants :  the  Syracusans  allied  themselves  with  the  Car- 
thaginians against  them ;  the  Mamertines  applied  for  support 
to  the  Romans.  After  some  delay,  occasioned  by  the  flagrant 
injustice  of  the  Mamertine  cause,  interest  prevailed  over 
principle,  and  the  required  aid  was  promised.  Thus  began 
the  first  of  those  wars  called  Punic. 

Rome  was  mistress  of  all  Italy,  except  what  was  held  in  266 
the  north  by  the  Gauls :  Carthage  was  in  the  height  of  her 
power,  possessed  of  a  large  portion  of  Africa,  Spain,  and 
Sicily,  and  of  Sardinia,  and  other  islands.  Rome's  civil  con- 
stitution was  in  its  vigor ;  that  of  Carthage  in  its  decline : 
Rome's  troops  were  free-born  citizens;  those  of  Carthage 
mercenaries :  Rome  had  no  fleet ;  that  of  Carthage  was  nu- 
merous. Such  was  the  relative  state  of  the  two  nations  when 
they  descended  into  the  arena. 

The  Romans  determined  to  have  a  fleet.  A  Carthaginian 
ehip  of  war,  that  was  driven  on  shore,  served  as  a  model :  the 
crews  were  taught  to  row  on  land.  Inferior  to  their  foes  in 
the  art  of  manoeuvring  their  vessels,  they  invented  machines 
for  grappling,  and  bringing  a  sea  to  resemble  a  land-fight 
The  consul  Duillius  won  the  first  naval  victory.  The  Romans 
were  already  victorious  in  Sicily.  The  consul  Regulus,  in 
imitation  of  Agathocles,  carried  the  war  into  Africa,  and 
spread  terror  to  the  gates  of  Carthage.  A  Spartan  merce- 
nary, named  Xanthippus,  was  opposed  to  him.  Roman  courage 
failed  before  Grecian  skill,  and  Regulus  and  his  army  surren- 
dered. National  hatred  invented  a  lying  tale  of  Punic  cru- 
elty and  Roman  virtue,  in  the  person  of  this  unhappy  general. 
A  signal  defeat,  off"  the  iEgatian  islands,  forced  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  sue  for  peace,  and  a  war  of  twenty-three  years  ter- 
minated by  their  giving  up  all  Sicily,  and  paying  a  large  sum  14.' 
of  money. 

lllyrian  War — Gallic  War. 
The  niyrians,  a  people  inhabiting  the  north-eastern  coast 
of  the  Adriatic,  were  addicted  to 'piracy.     The  Italian  mer- 
chants complained  of  their  losses  at  Rome :  ambassadors  were 
■ent  to  Illyria  to  remonstrate:   the  ambassadors  were  ill 


114  flISTORT  OV  THE  WORLD.  PART  i 

treated,  and  some  of  them  murdered.    Rome  took  up  arms  tf 
avenge  them,  and  to  put  down  piracy.     The  Illyrian  queen, 
Teuta,  was  compelled  to  surrender  a  large  portion  of  her  do- 
mmions,  to  reduce  her  shipping,  and  to  pay  an  annual  tribute. 
The  Senonian  G^auls  possessed  the  rich  plains  watered  by 
the  Po ;  the  Ligurians,  the  rugged  hills  west  and  south  of 
them.     Rome  engaged  in  war  with  both :  the  former  were 
completely  subdued,  after  a  hard  contest,  in  which  they  were 
B.  c.  aided  by  their  kindred  tribes  from  beyond  the  Alps.     The 
224.  battle  of  Clusium  decided  the  fate  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.     De- 
fended by  their  mountains,  the  Ligurians,  often  overcome, 
were  long  unconquered.     They  were  a  hardy,  active  race, 
who  lived  by  feeding  cattle,  and  by  hiring  out  their  services 
in  war. 

Second  Punic  War.  «, 

The  Carthaginians  now  turned  their  views  to  conquests  in 
Spain.  Their  troops  were  commanded  by  Asdrubal,  one  of 
the  ablest  generals  they  had  ever  possessed.  On  his  death 
the  troops  chose  for  their  commander  his  son  Annibal,  now 
but  twenty-six  years  old,  who  had  been  reared  in  the  camp, 
and  was  the  sworn  foe  of  Rome.  All  his  thoughts  were 
219  turned  on  war  against  that  republic :  he  attacked  Saguntum, 
a  city  in  alliance  with  Rome,  took  it,  after  an  obstinate  but 
unavailing  defence,  marched  with  a  numerous,  veteran,  and 
well-appointed  army  through  the  Pyrenees  and  Gaul  to  the 
confluence  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  passed  through  the  coun- 
try of  the  Allobroges,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  descended  into 
the  modern  Piedmont.  He  defeated  the  Romans  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ticmus,  then  on  those  of  the  Trebia,  next  at  the  Tra- 
simene  lake  in  Tuscany,  and  finally  gave  them  an  overthrow 
at  Cannee  in  Apulia,  worthy  to  be  compared  with  those  of 
Syracuse,  Leuctra,  and  Arbela.  But  here  his  career  of  vic- 
tory ended.  The  Roman  armies  hitherto  opposed  to  him  had 
been  militia,  their  generals  rash  and  inexperienced.  The 
chief  command  was  now  given  to  Fabius  the  Delayer,  who 
would  never  come  to  a  general  engagement,  but  hovered 
about  and  harassed  the  Punic  army,  and  raised  the  courage 
of  his  own.  Yet  Annibal,  though  opposed  by  a  faction  at 
home,  and  ill-supplied  with  men  and  money,  kept  possession 
of  the  fairest  portion  of  Italy  during  seventeen  years. 

Rome  gradually  recovered  her  strength ;  her  courage  had 
never  failed :  she  sent  an  army  to  Spain,  which  was  at  first 
resisted  with  success ;  but  imder  the  command  of  the  youth- 
ful, virtuous,  and  heroic  Scipio,  overcame  the  troops  of  Car- 
tnage.     Annibal  was  repeatedly  checked  in  Italy :  Gracchui 


CII  \P  VII.      ROME  TILL  THE  TIME  OF  THE  GRACCHI  115 

conquered  Sardinia ;  Syracuse,  which  had  now  gone  against 
Rome,  was,  though  defended  by  the  macliines  of  t?ie  great 
Archimedes,  taken  by  Marcellus  ;  and  Annibal's  last  hope, — 
the  army  led  to  his  assistance  from  Spain  by  his  brother  As- 
drubal, — was  annihilated  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus  by 
Tiberius  Nero.  Scipio  at  length  passed  with  hia  victorious 
army  over  to  Africa,  and  Annibal  was  recalled  to  the  defence 
of  his  country.  On  the  plains  of  Zama  a  battle  was  fought  b.  c 
between  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the  age,  and  the  fate  202 
of  Carthage  was  decided.  Annibal  was  defeated  for  the  first 
time ;  Carthage  was  forced  to  sue  for  peace.  Rigorous  terms 
were  imposed ;  she  was  confined  to  Africa,  obliged  to  surren- 
der her  ships,  prohibited  engaging  in  war,  and  compelled  to 
yield  Numidia  to  Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome. 

The  Macedonian  and  Syrian  Wars. 

Rome  now  possessed  all  Italy,  Sicily,  and  the  other  islands, 
and  a  part  of  Spain.  Her  arms  now,  for  the  first  time,  show 
themselves  in  Greece.  Carthage  being  reduced,  Philip,  king 
of  Macedon,  was  the  prince  who  could  give  Rome  most  dis- 
turbance. Philip,  though  he  had  made  an  alliance  with  An- 
nibal, imprudently  neglected  to  assist  him;  he  wasted  hia 
strength  in  petty  conflicts  in  Greece,  and,  instead  of  uniting 
the  people  of  that  country,  unwisely  put  them  in  fear  for  tlieir 
.  independence.  The  ^Etolians  called  on  the  Romans  for  aid, 
who  came  forward  as  the  champions  of  Grecian  liberty.  The  198 
battle  of  C3mocephale  overthrew  the  power  of  Macedon. 
Philip  had  to  sue  for  peace,  and  Rome  proclaimed  liberty  to 
Greece — a  nominal,  deceptive  liberty,  like  the  independence 
she  had  left  to  Carthage :  she  would  fain  be  mistress  of  the 
world,  without  the  world  discerning  its  subjection. 

Thoas,  the  ./Etolian,  thought  himself  not  sufficiently  re- 
warded for  his  services  by  the  Romans.  He  betook  himself 
to  Antiochns  the  Great,  king  of  Syria  ;  represented  to  him 
the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  suffering  the  Romans  thus 
to  go  on  extending  their  power,  a  power  the  more  to  be  sus- 
pected, as  they  were  the  known  foes  of  kings ;  and  exhorted 
the  monarch  to  lose  no  time  in  opposing  their  farther  pro- 
gress. His  representations  were  enforced  by  Annibal,  who, 
driven  by  a  faction  favorable  to  Rome  from  his  own  country, 
where  he  was  endeavoring  by  salutary  reforms  and  wise  regu- 
lations to  restore  Carthage  to  a  condition  of  resuming  her 
former  rank,  was  now  at  the  court  of  Antiochus.  Their  sug- 
gestions were  listened  to  with  a  willing  ear;  war  waa  de- 
clared: Asia  arrayed  against  Rome;  but  fortunately  for  t>»e 


116  mSTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

latter,  the  counsels  of  Annibal,  respecting  the  mode  of  con- 
ducting the  war,  were  not  attended  to. 

Antiochus  was  by  far  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Asia 
his  sway  was  acknowledged  from  the  Troas  to  Caucasus, 
Media,  Syria,  Phcenicia,  Palestine,  obeyed  him.     With  an 
army  estimated  at  400,000  men  he  entered  Greece.     Asiatic 
luxury  attended  this  second  Xerxes:    pomp  and   splendor 
shone  in  his  purple  and  silken  tents ;  but  he,  too,  had  to  en 
counter  an  iron  race,  who  fought,  not  indeed  for  liberty,  bu 
B.  c.  for  empire.  A  defeat  at  Thermopylae  drove  him  from  Greece 
I'.il    The  Romans  pursued  him  into  Asia.     Another  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Magnesia  reduced  the  Syrian  monarch  to  seek  a  peace, 
the  conditions  of  which  were  the  surrender  of  all  Lesser  Asia, 
as  far  as  Mount  Taurus,  and  of  the  half  of  his  ships. 

Conquest  of  Macedon. 

Philip  had  put  to  death  the  better  of  his  two  sons :  learn- 
ing when  too  late  his  innocence,  he  died  of  grief.  His  suc- 
cessor, Perseus,  vainly  hoped  to  restore  Macedon  to  its  pris- 
tine strength  and  dignity,  and  he  wanted  to  engage  its  forces 
once  more  in  conflict  with  those  of  Rome.  But  Paulus  iEmi- 
lius,  the  Roman  general,  overcame  all  obstacles  presented  by 
the  nature  of  the  country.  The  battle  of  Pydna,  in  which 
20,000  Macedonians  fell,  was  decisive.  Perseus  was  seized 
with  a  panic ;  he  fled  from  his  kingdom,  and  sheltered  him- 
self in  Samothrace,  where  he  meanly  surrendered  himself  to 
his  enemies.     In  the  156th  year  after  the  death  of  Alexander 

(69.  the  Great,  the  last  king  of  his  paternal  kingdom  walked  in 
the  triumphal  procession  of  the  general  of  a  nation  which 
had  not,  at  that  time,  attracted  the  attention  of  Greece.  Per- 
seus died  in  prison.  Macedonia  was  declared  free,  under  the 
protection  of  Rome.  Fifteen  years  afterwards,  a  commotion 
was  raised  in  that  state  by  one  Andriscus,  who  called  himself 
the  son  of  Perseus.  The  Romans  were  obliged  to  send  an 
army  thither,  and  the  kingdom  was  reduced  to  a  Roman 
province. 

In  these  times  Rome  began  to  interest  herself  in  the  af- 
fairs of  Egypt.  Egyptian  ambassadors  appeared  in  the  senate- 

167  house,  imploring  the  interference  of  Rome  to  prevent  An- 
tiochus, king  of  Syria,  from  making  a  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try. Ambassadors  were  dispatched  thither  by  the  senate,  and 
at  their  mandate  Antiochus  withdrew. 

Third  Punic  War. 

The  period  fixed  by  Providence  to  the  duration  of  Carthage 
now  approached.    Civil  dissensions,  the  sure  forerurmers  of 


l'B.i, 


'l!| 


if' 


a  s 


^i:'^i|;il!;i!ll'' 


::i!'iiil' 


•H" 


*?"iii|:iiii' 


i^AP.  Vn.    ROME  TILL  THE  TIME  OF  THE  GEACCHI.  119 

oational  ruiii,  ran  high.  Forty  senators,  driven  from  the  city, 
besought  Masinissa,  of  Numidia,  to  effect  their  restoration. 
His  mediation  was  spumed  by  the  dominant  faction.  The 
affair  was  brought  before  the  Roman  senate,  who  decided  ac- 
cording to  the  wishes  of  Masinissa,  and  the  pretext  was 
gladly  laid  hold  on  for  destroying  their  once  formidable  rival 
The  Carthaginians  were  ordered  to  surrender  all  the  ships 
they  had  built:  they  obeyed,  and  saw  them  burned  before 
their  faces.  They  were  then  ordered  to  quit  Carthage,  and  to 
build  for  themselves  a  new  city  in  the  interior,  afar  from  the 
sea.  This  ruthless  command  to  leave  their  temples  and  the 
tombs  of  their  fathers,  and  the  scene  of  all  tlieir  ancient 
glory,  was  too  much ;  the  people  were  driven  to  desperation  • 
the  senate  swore  to  stand  or  faU  with  Carthage ;  and  war, 
now  inevitable,  was  prepared  for.  Every  exertion  was  made 
to  replace  the  lost  navy ;  all  the  timber  that  could  be  collected 
was  brought  to  the  dock-yards ;  all  metals,  noble  and  ignoble, 
holy  or  profane,  were  melted  down  for  the  making  of  arms ; 
even  the  women  cut  off  their  long  hair,  that  it  might  be 
twisted  into  bow-strings  for  the  defenders  of  their  country, 
and  into  cordage  for  the  ships;  all  ages,  ranks,  and  sexes 
took  share  in  the  common  danger.  Three  years  long  did  the 
ill-fated  city  hold  out  with  amazing  perseverance  against  all 
the  efforts  of  the  Romans.  More  than  once  were  the  legions 
defeated ;  two  walls  were  taken,  the  besieged  defended  the 
third ;  the  harbor  was  lost,  they  dug  a  new  one.  At  length,- 
the  younger  Scipio  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  be- 
sieging army,  and  his  genius  triumphed  over  the  ingenious 
devices  of  the  besieged.  By  stratagem  he  gained  the  new 
harbor ;  yet  the  city,  though  now  open  and  defenceless,  main- 
tained, for  six  days  and  nights,  an  obstinate  resistance.  A 
party  at  length  declared  for  the  Romans ;  the  city  was  set  on 
fire  by  its  own  citizens,  as  it  would  appear,  that  it  might  not 
ecome  a  provincial  town  to  Rome.  The  inhabitants  slew 
hemselves  on  the  tombs  of  their  fathers,  in  the  citadel  and  in  b.  c 
the  temples  of  their  gods :  the  city  burned  seventeen  days ;  147 
and  the  heretofore  mistress  of  the  sea,  the  town  which  had 
numbered  700,000  inhabitants,  which  had  flourished  for  nearly 
1000  years,  sank,  never  again  to  rise  with  independence. 

Achaan  War. 

Greece,  though  nominally  free,  very  soon  saw  that  she  hao 
made  an  ill  exchange,  in  getting  the  Roman  instead  of  the 
Macedonian  power  into  her  neighborhood.  When  Macedon 
had  bceu  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  the  Romans  sought 
y«/  f     f  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  strong  place* 


120  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

throughout  Greece.  They  called  on  the  Acheean  league  to 
surrender  such  places  as  the  Macedonian  kings  had  held  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  Their  embassy  was  insulted  and  abused 
by  the  populace  in  Corinth,  and  a  pretext  for  a  war  was  gladly 
laid  hold  on. 

Greece  fought  with  her  ancient  heroism,  but  m  vain ;  her 
star  had  set,  her  troops  could  not  resist  the  legions  led  by 
able  and  experienced  commanders.  Critolaus,  the  Achaean 
general,  was  defeated  at  Thermopyl©,  and  slew  himself. 
Diseus,  like  another  Leonidas,  vainly  attempted  to  defend, 
with  614  brave  men,  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  He  hastened 
to  his  own  country,  satisfied  that  resistance  was  vain ;  col- 
lected his  wife  and  children;  distributed  poison  among  them; 
and  he  and  they  perished,  not  to  behold  the  slavery  of  their 
,.  c.  country.  Corinth  was  taken  by  L.  Mummius,  in  the  same 
147.  year  that  Carthage  fell  before  Scipio.  Its  pictures,  statues, 
plate,  and  treasures,  were  shipped  for  Rome ;  all  the  grown 
men  were  put  to  death,  the  women  and  children  sold  for 
slaves,  and  the  city  itself  burned.  A  similar  fate  befell  Thebes 
and  Chalcis  in  Euboea.  Greece  became,  under  the  name  of 
Achaea,  a  Roman  province;  her  glory  departed;  and  for 
nearly  2000  years  she  has  been  a  stranger  to  independence. 

TTie  Spanish  Wars. 

Spain  was  origmally  inhabited  by  nations  of  Keltic  and  of 
Iberian  race.  Its  people  were  distinguished  by  valor,  talent, 
steadiness,  and  perseverance:  it  had  been,  from  the  most 
remote  ages,  resorted  to  by  the  Phoenicians  for  the  produce 
of  its  mines  and  its  soil;  the  Greeks  early  visited  it;  the 
Carthaginians  made  themselves  masters  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  it.  During  the  second  Punic  war,  all  their  pos- 
sessions in  Spain  fell  to  the  victorious  Romans. 

After  the  conquest  of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  the  Roman 
began  to  turn  their  view  to  Spain.  They  attacked  the  Lusi 
tanians ;  but  this  valiant  people,  headed  by  Viriatus,  a  man 
of  distinguished  bravery,  prudence,  and  virtue,  long  bid  de- 
fiance to  the  arms  of  the  Romans,  who  now  were  so  far  degen- 
erated from  their  pristine  virtue,  as  not  to  blush  at  employing 
treachery  to  accomplish  their  objects,  and  Viriatus  perished 
by  assassms  hired  by  Rome.  The  tovra  of  Numantia,  with  a 
garrison  of  but  4000  men,  long  withstood  some  of  Rome's 
ablest  generals,  and  often  compelled  the  legions  to  withdraw. 
Even  the  great  Scipio,  the  conqueror  of  Carthage,  could 
hardly  boast  of  havmg  taken  this  heroic  town.  Famme 
preyed  on  the  inhabitants;  the  Roman  general  would  give 
ao  opportimity  for  battle ;  in  despair  they  set  fire  to  the  town, 


CHAP.  Vril.    ROME  TILL  THE  END  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.  121 

and  threw  themselves  into  the  flames.    The  Romans  stormed 
the  walls,  and  found  all  desolate  and  silent 

In  several  parts  of  Spain,  various  tribes  maintained  their 
mdependence  for  another  century.  They  fought  long  and 
obstinately ;  but  they  had  no  confederacies.  Each  tribe  fought 
and  fell  alone ;  and  gradually  the  whole  country  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  Rome,  now  grown  thoroughly  corrupt  and 
tyrannical. 


CHAP.  vm. 

ROUE   TILL   THE    END    OF    THE    REPUBLIC. 

The  Chracchi. 

Rome  had  conquered  Greece.  The  last  wDl  of  Attains, 
king  of  Pergamus,  gave  her  Lesser  Asia.  The  gift  was  de- 
structive. Grecian  and  Asiatic  corruption  and  vice  proved 
too  strong  for  Roman  virtue.  We  are  no  more  to  look  for 
the  noble  qualities  that  adorned  the  golden  ages  of  the  repub- 
lic. Wealth  and  power  are  henceforth  the  claims  to  the  high 
offices  of  the  state ;  corruption  and  extortion  the  characteris- 
tics of  magistrates  and  governors.  Blood,  which  for  centuries 
had  not  stained  the  streets  of  Rome,  was  now  shed  without 
remorse.  Even  his  virtues  could  not  save  the  conqueror  of 
Carthage,  the  elegant  and  accomplished  friend  of  LbrHus  and 
patron  of  Terence  and  Polybius,  from  the  hands  of  his  own 
relations,  who  dreaded  his  being  elevated  to  the  dictatorship; 
and  the  friends  of  justice  feared  to  institute  an  inquiry  into 
the  causes  of  his  death.  Now  it  became  usual  at  Rome  to 
carry  a  dagger  beneath  the  robe. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  republic,  when  the  Roman  people 
were  divided  into  the  two  separate  orders  of  patricians  and 
plebeians,  nothing  could  be  more  just  than  the  Agrarian  laws, 
such  as  we  have  described  them  above.*  It  was  but  reasona- 
ble that  the  plebeians  should  share  in  the  lands  purchased 
with  their  blood ;  it  was  but  just  that  all  orders  should  con- 
tribute to  the  public  revenue.  But,  in  the  present  period,  tlie 
distinction  between  patrician  and  plebeian  could  hardly  be 
said  to  exist ;  and  if  there  was  a  difference,  it  was,  that  the 
g'eat  preponderance  of  landed  property  wa=i  on  the  side  of 
tne  latter.    This  property  had  been  possessed  undisturbed  for 

H  •  See  p.  66. 


122  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

generations ;  it  had  often  been  acquired  by  purchase,  by  in- 
heritance, or  by  marriage.  Yet,  though  their  estates  might 
have  been  legally  acquired,  the  unfeeling  rapacity  of  the  no- 
bles, in  cruelly  expelling  the  old  tenants,  whose  fathers  had 
for  generations  dwelt  on  their  lands,  to  throw  their  little  farms 
into  pasture-land,  was  such  as  must  have  excited  indignation 
m  any  generous  bosom.  The  Romans  were  now,  like  a 
modern  nation,  divided  into  rich  and  poor,  without  the  latter 
having  the  resource  which  the  poor  of  modern  times  have, 
of  following  a  trade  or  going  to  service.  Trade  was  esteemed 
beneath  a  free-born  citizen ;  slaves  precluded  the  necessity  of 
hired  labor.  No  remedy  remained  but  a  violent  and  unjust 
one. 

B.  c.      When  the  treasures  of  Attains  came  to  the  Romans,  Tib. 

132   Sempronius  Gracchus,  nephew  to  Scipio,  one  of  the  tribunes 
of  the  people,  proposed  that  they  should  be  divided  among  the 
people..  This  was  unjust ;  for,  since  the  conquest  of  Macedon, 
the  Roman  people  had  been  tax-free;  and  the  wealth  now 
brought  into  the  treasury  was  merely  sufficient  to  enable  the 
government  to  be  carried  on  without  oppressing  the  provinces. 
Gracchus  farther  brought  in  a  law  to  prevent  any  citizen 
whatever  from  holding  more  than  a  certain  quantity  of  land. 
Gracchus  was  a  man  of  many  noble  qualities,  but,  looking 
to  the  end,  he  was  not  sufficiently  regardful  of  means.     He 
ejected  by  force,  from  the  tribuneship,  one  of  his  colleagues, 
who  was,  in  his  eyes,  too  moderate.     He  then  proceeded  to 
require,  that  civic  rights  should  be  communicated  to  all  Ital- 
ians.    The  senate  and  nobles  thus  saw  themselves  at  once 
menaced  with  spoliation  of  their  property,  and  loss  of  all  influ- 
ence, by  the  admission  to  the  legislature  of  such  a  multitude, 
•who  might  be  swayed  to  the  most  ruinous  resolutions.     They 
resolved  to  resist;  Scipio  Nasica,  a  man  of  the  purest  virtue, 
placed  himself  on  the  steps  ascending  to  the  Capitol,  and 
called  on  every  one  who  valued  his  country  to  come  to  him. 
The  senate,  all  the  principal  citizens,  the  knights,  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  people,  ranged  themselves  on  his  side. 
A  tumult  arose,  in  which  Tib.  Gracchus  lost  his  life,  and  blood 
was  shed  in  civil  contention  for  the  first  time  since  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Twelve  Tables. 
22     Ten  years  after  the  death  of  Tib.  Gracchus,  his  brother 
Caius,  a  man  of  genius  and  eloquence  superior  t  o  his,  renewed 
bis  plans.     He  proposed,  that,  in  conformity  with  the  Li- 
cinian  law,*  no  citizen  should  hold  more  than  five  hundi-ed 


*  See  p.  72.  It  is  almost  needless  to  observe,  that  the  Licinian  law  related 
only  to  possession  in  tlie  public  land.  It  set  no  limit  to  the  acquisition  of 
landed  or  any  other  species  oi  ■property. 


:.!'iil,!|'lf 


•  filiiilil'i,  --M 

m  i  .ill. 

liifii 

;G'  IT'*,,,.*  ■-?/. 

J-'l-^',r;li!|J::i;';:i;i   •>-■ 

•'.;,t'-:i;iii;~i;:;!jiS'i 


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CHAP.  VIII    ROME  TILL  THE  END  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.  125 

jugera  of  land ;  that  all  Cisalpine  Gaul  should  be  reckoned 
part  of  Italy,  und  have  the  same  rights ;  that  corn  should  be 
sold  to  the  people  at  an  extremely  low  price ;  that  six  hundred 
knights  should  be  admitted  into  the  senate ;  that  the  right  of 
sitting  as  judges  should  be  taken  from  the  latter  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  knights.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  the 
plain  consequences  of  such  measures  could  have  escaped  tlie 
penetration  of  a  man  of  the  genius  of  C.  Gracchus.  His  views 
may  have  been  personal ;  he  may  have  been  led  away  by  pas- 
sion ;  possibly  he  was  only  attempting  a  desperate  remedy 
for  an  evil  that  was  inevitable — the  corruption  and  debase- 
ment of  the  Roman  people. 

His  plans  seemed  calculated  to  engage  the  knights,  the 
people,  and  all  Italy,  in  his  favor ;  yet  he  met  with  little  sup- 
port The  consul,  Opimius,  his  personal  enemy,  set  a  price 
on  his  head ;  the  knights,  and  even  Latium,  and  the  allied 
towns,  declared  for  maintaining  the  constitution.  Cams 
Gracchus  also  lost  his  life,  and  his  fate  was  shared  by  three 
thousand  of  his  adherents. 

Jugurthine   War — Cimbric   War. 

Micipsa,  son  of  Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  when  dying, 
left  his- kingdom  to  his  sons,  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal,  and  to 
his  nephew,  Jugurtha.  The  latter  murdered  his  cousins,  and 
seized  on  the  whole  kingdom.  War  was  declared  against 
him  by  the  Romans.  At  Rome,  whither  he  had  come,  during 
the  lifetime  of  Adherbal,  on  the  summons  of  the  senate,  he 
bribed  to  a  great  extent;  and  having  become  convinced  that 
every  one  there  had  his  price,  the  conduct  of  the  first  gene- 
rals sent  agamst  him  confirmed  him  in  his  belief  But,  at  last, 
the  command  was  conferred  on  Metullus,  a  man  of  noble  birth. 
The  arts  of  Jugurtha  failed  against  him ;  he  had  reduced  the 
Numidian  to  the  last  extremity,  when  party-spirit  at  home 
transferred  the  consulate,  and  the  glory  of  terminating  the 
war,  to  his  lieutenant  Marius,  a  man  of  mean  extraction,  son 
')f  a  peasant  of  Arpinum.  Jugurtha  was  led  in  triumph,  and 
then  starved  to  deatii  in  prison. 

Now  began  those  irruptions  of  the  northern  nations,  which  b.  c 
were  destined,  at  length,  to  overturn  the  empire  of  Rome.  106 
The  Romans  had  already  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
principal  passes  of  the  Alps;  a  Roman  province  extended 
from  the  foe  of  the  Alps  to  that  of  the  Pyrenees;  the  Allo- 
broges  and  the  Arvemi,  nations  inhabiting  the  present  Savoy, 
Dauphine,  and  Auvergne,  had  been  reduced.  While  the  arms 
of  Rome  were  employed  against  Numidia,  northern  tribes, 
named  Cimbri,  Teutones,  Ambrones,  and  Tigurini,  laid  vnate 
11* 


126  mSXORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1. 

the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  Gaul.  They  were  encountered 
by  the  Roman  legions  under  the  consul  Carbo.  The  Roman 
arms  met  a  defeat  Armies  commanded  by  Silanus,  Scaurus, 
and  Cassius,  shared  a  similar  fate.  Caepio  and  Manlius  were 
overthrown  with  prodigious  slaughter ;  and  Italy  trembled  a» 
in  the  days  of  Annibal. 

Rome's  only  hope  lay  in  Marius :  he  was  chosen  consul 

He  marched  in  person  against  the  Teutones  who  were  in 

Gaul ;  his  colleague,  Catulus,  went  against  the  Cimbri,  who 

B.  c.  were  entering  Italy  by  the  Rhaetian  Alps.     Marius  encoun 

'03.  tered  and  defeated  the  Teutones  with  tremendous  slaughtei 

at  Aquae  Sextiae  (Aix),  and  then  marched  to  the  assistance 

of  his  colleague.    At  Vercellae,  on  the  Athesis,  the  combined 

Roman  armies  engaged  the  wild  hordes  of  the  Cimbri.    Thi 

conflict  was  long  and  bloody.     Victory  declared  for  Rome, 

140,000  Cimbri  lay  on  the  plain,  numerous  prisoners  wer* 

02.  taken  and  sold  for  slaves,  and  the  consuls  entered  Rome  i« 

triumph. 

State  of  Rome — Social  or  Marsian  War. 

The  demagogues  were  now  dominant  at  Rome.  They  had 
made  Marius  consul  in  opposition  to  the  noble  Metellus. 
Marius  allied  himself  closely  with  the  tribune  Sfaturnius, 
who  had  murdered  his  competitor  on  the  day  of  election 
Metellus,  fearing  for  his  life,  quitted  Rome.  The  hopes  of 
the  nobles  were  in  Memmius :  a  tribune  of  the  people  mur- 
dered him  on  the  day  of  consular  election.  Marius,  however, 
took  the  side  of  justice,  and  the  tribune  was  torn  to  pieces 
Such  was  the  state  of  Rome :  no  man's  life  was  safe  who  op- 
posed the  demagogues.  In  the  provinces  matters  were  not 
much  better.  The  knights,  who  now  formed  a  distinct  order 
in  the  state,  were  in  number  3900 :  since  the  time  of  C. 
Gracchus,  they  had  exercised  the  judicial  power.  They, 
moreover,  farmed  the  revenues  of  the  provinces,  and  extorted 
and  oppressed  the  people  in  the  most  nefarious  manner,  while 
no  redress  could  be  obtained,  as  it  was  to  themselves,  in  their 
capacity  of  judges,  that  all  appeals  for  justice  lay. 

A  private  quarrel  between  Caepio  and  Drusus  brought  the 
senate  and  the  knights  into  conflict.  The  knights  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  former.  Drusus  saw  the  necessity 
of  endeavoring  to  deprive  them  of  their  power,  and  of  re- 
storing the  constitution.  It  was  of  importance  to  gain  the 
people  to  his  side ;  he  proposed  the  formation  of  new  colonies, 
the  division  of  some  districts.  The  morals  of  Drusus  were 
pure,  his  views  were  noble :  but  the  senate,  for  whose  ad- 
trantage  he  was  laboring,  dia  not  comprehend  his  object,  and 


CHAP.  VIII.  ROME  TILL  THE  END  OP  THE  REPUBLIC.  127 

opposed  him.  Finding  senate  and  knights  united  against  him, 
he  saw  tliat  he  must  look  abroad  for  support.  He  promised 
the  freedom  of  tlie  city  to  all  Italy ;  he  brought  in  a  law  for 
the  assignment  of  lands,  another  to  regulate  the  price  of 
com,  and  a  third  to  divide  the  judicial  power  between  the 
senate  and  the  knights.  As  he  was  returning  home,  attended 
by  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  lie  was  stabbed  by  an 
unknown  hand. 

The  Italians  came  to  Rome  to  claim  their  civic  rights. 
They  had  been  a  chief  mean  of  extending  the  dominion  of 
the  city,  as  their  contingents  had  always  far  out-numbered 
the  legions:  tliey  deemed  it,  therefore,  but  just  they  should 
share  in  its  advantages.  Their  desire  was  haughtily  rejected. 
Seeing  they  had  no  hopes  from  the  justice  and  generosity  of  „. 
Rome,  they  resolved  to  become  independent  of  her.  An  e.\-  'J: 
tensive  confederacy  was  formed  among  the  nations  of  Um- 
brian  and  Sabellian  race,  which  was  afterwards  joined  by  the 
people  of  Tuscany,  Campania,  and  Calabria.  War  was  de- 
clared against  Rome.  Corfinium  was  made  their  capital. 
Large  armies  were  sent  against  the  confederates :  the  Roman 
generals  were  defeated.  Never  was  a  war  more  obstinate 
or  more  bloody.  The  greatest  generals  of  Rome  were  sent 
against  the  enemy :  victory  and  defeat  alternated.  Cruelties 
and  massacies  of  the  most  barbarous  character  w^re  exer- 
cised. Tie  war,  which  cost  the  lives  of  300,000  men,  was 
only  ended  by  a  concession  which,  in  the  first  instance,  would 
have  prevented  it.  One  by  one  the  allies  were  granted  ftdl 
civic  rights,  and  all  Italians  became  citizens  of  Rqfne.  81 

Miihri<Jatic  and  Civil  Wars. 

Mithridates  VJI.,  king  "f  Pontus,*  the  ablest  and  most 
powerful  enemy  Rome  ever  encountered,  now  appears  as  her 
opjionent.  This  monarch  was  respected  and  admired  for  his 
great  gifts  of  mind,  and  he  iiad  an  army  habituated,  in  its 
conflicts  with  tlie  nations  round  the  Euxine,  to  privation  and 
danger. 

Just  as  the  Romans  were  terminating  the  Social  War,  in- 
telligence arrived  of  the  massacre,  in  one  day,  of  80,000 
Roman  citizens,  resident  in  the  towns  of  Lesser  Asia.  The 
Roman  army  in  that  country  was  unable  to  stand  before  the 
troops  of  Mithridates;  its  generals  were  taken  and  put  to 
death  with  insult.  The  isles  of  the  TEgean  and  Greece  it» 
■plf  were  reduced  by  the  Pontic  monarch. 

L.  Sulla,  a  member  of  a  reduced  patrician  family,  had  beei 

*  See  p.  54. 


128  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I. 

the  lieutenant,  and  was  now  the  rival,  of  Marius.  He  was 
besieging  the  city  of  Nola,  one  of  those  of  the  allies,  when 
he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  war  against  Mithridates. 
Marius,  though  now  seventy  years  old,  could  not  endure  that 
his  rival  should  have  this  honor.  He  had  the  decree  recalled, 
and  himself  appointed.  Sulla,  on  receiving  this  intelligence, 
broke  up  from  before  Nola,  and,  for  the  first  time,  a  Roman 
army  marched  against  the  city.  At  the  head  of  26,000  men 
he  entered  Rome,  which  he  had  called  for  torches  to  set  fire 
to.  Marius  was  forced  to  fly ;  ho,  his  son,  and  ten  of  his 
adherents  were,  by  orders  of  Sulla,  declared  public  enemies. 
Marius  concealed  himself  in  the  Minturnian  marsh,  but  was 
taken  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Minturnum.  A  Cimbrian 
slave  was  sent  to  put  him  to  death ;  but,  terrified  at  the  look 
and  the  voice  of  the  conqueror  of  his  countrymen,  he  cast 
down  his  weapon  and  fled.     Marius  escaped  to  Africa. 

Sulla  hastened  over  to  Greece,  all  of  which  submitted  tc 
him.  Athens  alone  shut  her  gates,  and  was  gallantly  de- 
fended by  Archelaus,  Mithridates's  general :  he,  however, 
soon  retreated  to  Boeotia,  and  an  engagement  took  place  near 
Chseronea,  in  which  the  Pontic  troops  were  totally  defeated. 
Another  battle  followed  at  Orchomenus,  in  Thessaly,  equally 
fatal  to  the  interests  of  Mithridates,  who  now  sued  for  peace , 
and  Sulla,  who,  in  consequence  of  tidings  from  Italy,  was  in 
haste  to  return  thither,  readily  consented,  promising  to  secure 
Mithridates  in  his  paternal  dominions,  and  have  him  entitled 
a  friend  and  ally  of  Rome,  that  monarch  agreeing  to  surren- 
der Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  and  Asia. 

Sulla  had  left  the  consulate  in  the  hands  of  Octavius  and 
Cinna.  The  latter  introduced  confusion  anew  into  the  city: 
he  was  expelled  by  his  colleague :  he  collected  an  army,  and 
menaced  the  senate.  Eight  new  tribes  had  been  formed  out 
of  the  citizens  of  such  towns  as  had  abandoned  the  Marsian 
league,  and  Cinna,  by  promising  to  distribute  them  into  the 
old  tribes,  so  that  these  should  have  no  pre-eminence,  soon 
saw  himself  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army.  To  strengthen 
himself  still  more,  he  recalled  Marius,  and  various  motives 
armed  almost  all  Italy  in  favor  of  the  veteran  general.  The 
army  of  the  elder  Pompeius  was  defeated  near  the  gates  of 
Rome.  Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  Sertorius  entered  the  city. 
The  consul  Octavius  still  defended  the  Vatican  hill ;  but  his 
head  was  soon  seen  borne  on  a  spear  through  the  streets. 
Marius  then  issued  his  orders  for  the  slaughter  of  the  prin- 
cipal senators :  some  were  slain  in  their  own  houses,  some 
betrayed  by  their  clients.  The  high-priest  of  Jupiter  was 
slaughtc-ed  at  the  altar  of  his  goo.     Catulus,  the  colleague 


CHAP.  VIII.  ROME  TILL  THE  END  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.  131 

of  Marius  in  the  Cimbric  war,  was  compelled  to  be  his  own 
destroyer.  The  head  of  Antonius,  the  great  orator,  waa 
brought  to  Marius  as  he  sat  at  supper :  he  t«»ok  and  handled 
it,  and  embraced  with  joy  the  murderer.  Having  thus,  witli 
tiger-ferocity,  glutted  his  vengeance  and  made  himself  with 
Cinna  consul  for  the  seventh  time,  he  expired  in  the  70th  b 
year  of  his  age,  fortunate  in  thus  escaping  the  vengeance  of  8: 
his  rival. 

Sulla,  having  ended  the  Mithridatic  war,  was  now  return- 
ing home  in  triumph.  He  landed  in  Apulia,  and  marched 
his  troops  with  good  order  and  discipline  towards  Rome.  He 
was  met  by  the  flying  consulars,  and  professed  his  intention 
to  restore  the  senate  to  their  legal  rights.  Cinna  led  an 
army  against  him,  but  was  slain  in  an  uproar  by  his  own  sol- 
diers. Sulla  overthrew  the  army  of  Norbanus,  near  Capua : 
the  army  of  L.  Scipio  went  over  to  him.  Cneius  Pompeius 
joined  him  with  his  father's  clients.  One  of  his  officers  gained 
possession  of  Sardinia.  The  Marian  praetor  of  Africa  was  in 
an  insurrection  burnt  in  his  own  house.  Meanwhile,  at  the 
desire  of  the  younger  Marius,  the  praetor  Damasippus  assem- 
bled the  senate  of  Rome  to  make  proposals  of  peace.  All  the 
citizens  of  rank  then  in  Rome  met  in  the  Hostilian  curia. 
The  Marians  fell  upon  and  slaughtered  the  whole  assembly ; 
no  age,  or  station,  or  place,  was  sacred  :  the  chief  pontiff" 
ScoBvola  fell  in  presence  of  the  holy  fire  of  Vesta. 

Sulla  entered  Rome :  his  entrance  was  the  signal  for  the 
slaughter  of  all  the  Marian  party,  of  all  whom  he  himself  or 
any  of  his  partisans  hated.  That  the  slaughter  might  pro- 
ceed regularly,  proscription-tables  were  now  introduced  into 
Rome:  these  presented  to  view  the  names  of  at  first  80,  then 
500  men  of  rank,  whose  murder  was  enjouied,  and  whose 
murderers  were  to  be  rewarded  by  the  possession  of  their  es- 
tates, while  their  children  were  to  lose  all  claims  to  public 
office.  Wealth  soon  became  crime,  where  murder  was  gain. 
Blood  had  flowed  in  the  days  of  Marius ;  it  now  streamed. 
Eight  thousand  of  the  Marian  party  had  surrendered :  by 
order  of  Sulla,  they  were  massacred  near  the  senate-house. 
The  cries  of  the  victims  were  so  loud,  that  the  senate  could 
not  go  on  with  their  deliberationa  "They  are  only,"  sajd 
Sulla,  "  some  wrretches  who  are  punished  for  their  crimes." 

Young  Marius  defended  Pra;neste  with  a  heroism  worthy 
of  his  father.  His  brother,  the  praetor,  was  put  to  death  with 
wanton  barbarity,  and  his  head  flung  over  the  walls  into  Pr»- 
neste.  Marms  and  a  friend  voluntarily  slew  each  other :  the 
town  was  taken,  and  its  defenders  put  to  the  sword.  CneiuB 
Pompeius  defeated  the  consul  Carbo  in  Sicily.  Norbanus  wa* 


132  HISTORY  OF  TUB  WORLD.  PART  I 

driven  to  suicide  in  Rhodes.  The  sole  authority  of  Sulla  waa 
undisputed,  save  in  Spain :  he  exercised  it  with  ruthless 
atrocity.  One  of  his  most  zealous  adherents,  the  preetor 
Ofella,  who  had  taken  Prsneste,  venturing  to  stand  for  the 
consulship  without  the  permission  of  Sulla,  was  slain  in  the 
forum  by  his  command.  When  the  people  testified  marks  of 
indignation,  he  stepped  forward  and  merely  said,  "  I  ordered 
.  it"  The  proscription  still  raged ;  wives  shut  the  doors  agains 
their  own  husbands ;  children  slew  their  own  fathers :  deat 
was  the  only  refuge  from  cruelty. 

The  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  cost  the  lives  of  'i'S 
consulars,  7  praetors,  60  sediles,  200  senators,  and  150,000 
Roman  citizens,  and  thousands  v\  ere  stript  of  their  paternal 
possessions,  and  driven  forth  to  wander  in  misery.  Sulla  di- 
vided among  his  legions  the  lands  and  properties  of  the  Ma- 
rians: he  renewed  and  made  perpetual  in  his  own  person  the 
dictatorship,  now  out  of  use  120  years ;  sought  to  bring  back 
the  republic  to  its  old  form,  when  all  power  lay  with  the  pa- 
tricians ;  deprived  the  tribunes  of  the  people  of  the  right  of 
proposing  laws,  completed  the  reduced  senate  from  the  eques- 
trian order,  increased,  for  the  advantage  of  his  friends,  the 
colleges  of  pontiffs  and  augurs.  Suddenly,  in  the  very  pleni- 
tude of  his  power,  he  abdicated  it,  and  retired  into  private 
g.  (,  life.  He  resigned  himself  undisturbed  to  mental  and  sensual 
75.  enjoyments,  employing  his  leisure  in  writing  the  history  of 
his  own  life.  He  died  just  as  he  had  completed  the  22d  book. 
His  resignation  of  power  is  an  act  almost  unexampled :  it 
gives  a  strong  idea  of  the  man  and  the  times,  thus  to  behold 
him,  who  had  made  blood  run  like  water,  passing  his  latter 
days  in  tranquillity  at  PuteolL 

From  the  Death  of  Sulla  to  that  of  Mithridntes. 

Sertorius,  one  of  the  Marian  party,  had  retired  to  Spain  : 
he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Lusitanians,  whose  respect  and 
affections  he  had  gained,  established  among  them  a  miniature 
of  the  Roman  republic,  and  during  eighteen  years  defeated 
every  army  sent  against  him  by  the  Romans.  Neither  Me- 
tellus  nor  Pompeius  availed  to  subdue  him ;  treachery  alone 
could  free  Rome  from  this  enemy.  Perpenna,  one  of  his  offi- 
^   cers,  conspired  against  hun,  and  slew  him  at  a  banquet. 

While  Sertorius  maintained  himself  in  Spain,  a  furiou 
war  raged  in  the  south  of  Italy.     A  few  gladiators  broke  ou 
of  their  school  at  Capua ;  their  leader  was  Spartacus,  a  Thra 
cian  by  birth ;  slaves,  pirates,  peasants,  flocked  to  them ;  they 
soon  increased  to  such  a  number  as  to  be  formidable  to  Rome. 
Consular  armies  were  sent  against  them  withe ut  success, 


CHAP.  VIII.     ROME  TILL  THE  END  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.  133 

four  Roman  armies  were  defeated  by  the  gladiator.  At  length 
Cracsus  was  sent  to  oppose  him ;  victory  was  long  dubioua, 
but  finally  declared  for  Rome.  The  whole  of  the  rebel  army 
was  cut  to  pieces  or  dispersed :  its  leader  fell  on  heaps  of 
slaughtered  Romans.  The  bodies  of  40,000  rebels  lav  on  the 
field.  ^ 

At  this  period  arose  in  Lesser  Asia  a  pirate-society,  re- 
sembling the  buccaneers  of  modem  times.  Cilicians,  fsauri- 
ans,  and  people  of  other  Asiatic  regions,  engaged  in  piracy 
on  an  extensive  scale :  their  ships  swarmed  in  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean ;  the  coasts  of  Italy  were  infested  by  them.  No  Ro- 
man was  safe  at  his  country-seat ;  no  magistrate  on  his  jour- 
ney. They  ventured  even  to  attack  the  Roman  legions,  put 
a  stop  to  foreign  commerce,  and  reduced  Rome  to  danger  of 
famine,  by  intercepting  the  supplies  of  corn.  Several  Ro- 
man commanders  were  sent  against  them ;  they  were  beaten, 
but  not  conquered.  At  last  Cneius  Pompeius  was  intrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  with  unlimited  power  over 
the  Mediterranean  and  its  coasts.  He  swept  the  sea  of  them 
in  the  short  space  of  forty  days,  pursued  them  to  their  re- 
treats, forced  them  to  submit,  and  transported  them  far  inland 
into  the  continent.  ^ 

During  the  lifetime  of  Sulla,  a  second  war  had  broken  out 
with  Mithridates,  and  been  terminated  to  the  advantage  of 
Rome.     When  Nicomedes  of  Bithynia  bequeathed  his  king- 
dom to  the  Romans,  Mithridates  disputed  their  right  to  it,  and 
entered  it  with  a  large  army.     The  command  of  the  Roman 
army  was  intrusted  to  Lucullus,  a  man  long  retired  from 
military  affairs,  and  devoted  to  the  arts  of  peace.     He  is  said 
to  have  acquired  his  knowledge  of  this  war,  and  the  mode  of 
conducting  it,  from  books  and  conversation  on  his  way  to  Asia. 
His  deeds  prove  that  a  mind  used  to  thinking  can  soon  mas- 
ter any  difficulties.     The  war  was  a  constant  succession  of 
victories  on  the  side  of  the  Romans.    Mithridates  was  forced 
to  apply  to  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  Lucullus,  in  a  bloody 
battle,  overthrew,  with  hardly  any  loss  on  his  own  side,  the 
troops  of  Armenia,  and  made  himself  master  of  Tigranocerta, 
the  capital  of  Tigranes.     He  now  had  the  full  prospect  of 
bringing  to  a  glorious  termination  the  war  against  one  of  the 
ablest  enemies  Rome  had  ever  encountered,  when  Pompeius 
arrived  to  rob  him  of  the  honor.     The  new  general  carried 
on  the  war  with  vigor  :  he  reduced  Tigranes  to  sue  for  peace, 
and  drove  Mithridates  to  take  refuge  among  the  wild  tribes 
ncilh  cf  the  Eu.xine.     The  spirit  of  the  Pontic  monarch  was 
not  yet  broken  :  he  meditated  a  union  of  the  nations  dwelling 
from  the  Tanais  to  the  Alps,  and  of  invading  Italy  at  the  hear 
12 


134  HISTORI  OF  THE  WOELD.  PART  1 

of  them.  His  troops  were  terrified  at  his  projects ;  his  son 
8  c.  conspired  against  him,  and  Mithridates,  justly  styled  the 
'>4.  Great,  died  by  poison  administered  by  his  own  iiand,  in  the 
72d  year  of  his  age.  During  25  years  he  had  carried  on  an 
obstinate  war  against  Rome,  had  withstood  the  fortune  of 
Sulla,  the  zeal  of  several  consuls,  the  wisdom  of  Lucullus, 
and  the  rapidity  of  Pompeius,  and  was  finally  overcome  only 
by  ingratitude  and  treason. 

Pompeius  deprived  Tigranes  of  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Phceni- 
cia,  which  became  subject  to  Rome.  He  marched  southwards, 
and  reduced  Judaea.  All  Asia  bemg  now  subdued,  he  re- 
turned to  Italy,  where  he  disbanded  his  troops  on  landmg,  to 
quiet  the  apprehensions  of  the  people.  He  was  honored  with 
a  splendid  triumph,  and  he  brought  into  the  public  treasury 
a  sum  of  20,000  talents. 

Catiline's  Conspiracy. 
While  Pompeius  was  absent  in  the  East,  Rome  ran  immi- 
nent risk  of  seeing  days  worse  than  those  of  Marius  and 
Sulla,  and  crimes  of  equal  or  greater  enormity  perpetrated 
L.  Sergius  Catilma,  a  man  of  patrician  extraction,  but  of 
profligate  manners  and  ruined  fortunes,  conceived  hopes  of 
bemg  able  to  overthrow  the  constitution.  Several  men  of 
high  rank  were  concerned  in  this  conspiracy.  Catiline  stood 
for  the  consulship,  but  faUed,  M.  TuUius  Cicero,  the  illustri- 
ous orator,  bemg  chosen.  His  designs  bemg  discovered,  he 
became  desperate,  and  resolved  on  the  murder  of  the  consul 
and  the  principal  senators,  and  setting  fire  to  the  city;  but 
information  of  all  his  projects  was  given  to  the  consul,  and 
Catiline  was  at  length  obliged  to  leave  Rome,  and  put  him- 
eelf  at  the  head  of  such  forces  as  he  had  been  able  to  brmg 
together.  His  accomplices  at  Rome  were  meanwhile  dis- 
covered and  executed,  and  he  himself  engaging  with  the 
army  sent  agamst  hun,  fought  and  feU  with  a  heroism  worthy 
*3.  of  a  better  cause. 

The  Gallic  War  of  Ccesar. 
At  this  period  the  leading  men  in  Rome  were  Pompeius, 
named  the  Great,  and  flushed  with  his  victories;  Crassus, 
distino-uished  for  his  riches,  and  the  conqueror  of  Spartacus: 
Cfesar,  a  man  of  noble  birth,  distinguished  talents,  ruined  for- 
tune, and  now  father-in-law  of  Pompeius ;  Cato,  of  pre-emi- 
nenl  virtue,  unstained  character,  and  only  to  be  blamed  (if 
blame  could  atlacli  to  sucn  a  principle)  for  not  being  able  to 
accoimnodate  himself  to  the  manners  of  the  Umes,  and  of 
thus  bemg  unable  to  render  more  real  service  to  his  country 


B-oTTisn  cois. 


conr  OS  erbeet- 


COIir  0?  ETHELBEET. 


COIK  OB  AlPEEDr 


COIH  OP   •THELSTAN. 


COIIT  OB  ■WILLIAil  I. 


COIB  ov  HENET  ABD  srErnEir. 


OOIIf  OB  IIESET  U. 


CHAP.  VIII.      ROMV  TILL  THE  END  OP  THE  REPUBLIC.  137 

and,  lastly,  Cicero,  the  crusher  of  the  projects  of  Catiline, 
the  ablest  orator,  the  most  accomplished  and  virtuous  states- 
man, only  unhappy  in  a  want  of  firmness  and  decision  of 
character. 

The  ambilion  of  the  three  former  could  not  be  restrained 
by  the  virtue  and  moderation  of  the  two  last  Already  Cesar 
and  Crassus  had  been  more  than  suspected  of  being  privy  to 
the  plans  of  Catiline,  trusting  that,  through  their  superior 
character,  talents,  and  influence,  they  might  bo  able  to  seize 
on  the  supreme  power,  when  his  ruthless  ferocity  had  re- 
moved all  obstacles  and  all  competitors.  CiEsar  had  been 
afterwards  prtetor  in  Spain,  and  had  there  repaired  his  dilapi- 
dated fortune.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  had  been  made 
consul,  and  while  in  office  he  caused  several  laws  to  be  passed, 
which  gratified  and  increased  his  influence  with  Pompeius, 
the  knights,  and  the  people.  He  took  occasion  to  reconcile 
Pompeius,  who  was  married  to  his  daughter,  with  Crassus, 
whose  wealth  gave  him  great  power  with  the  people,  and  the 
three  formed  among  themselves  that  coalition  or  secret  com- 
pact of  mutual  support  and  mutual  regard  to  each  other's  in- 
terest, known  under  the  name  of  the  Triumvirate. 

CfiBsar,  on  the  expiration  of  his  consulate,  had  himself  ap- 
pointed for  five  years  to  the  government  of  the  Gauls.  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  had  long  been  a  part  of  Italy.  The  Romans  had 
first  entered  Transalpine  Gaul,  B.  C.  123.,  and  shortly  after 
reduced  the  south-eastern  part  of  it  to  the  form  of  a  province. 

Gaul  was  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  states, 
some  ot  a  more,  some  of  a  less  warlike  character.  The  most 
powerful  race  were  the  Belgians,  who  dwelt  from  the  Alps 
northwards  to  the  sea,  mingled  witla  tribes  of  Germanic  race. 
The  Helvetii,  a  portion  of  these,  dwelling  at  the  foot  of  b.  c 
Mount  Jura,  gave  the  Roman  governor  the  wished-for  oppor-  57 
tunity  of  increasing  his  military  fame  and  power,  and  of 
securing  the  tranquillity  of  Italy.  United  with  several  Ger- 
man tribes,  they  set  fire  to  their  dwellings,  and  in  an  im- 
mense body  set  forth  to  pass  the  Jura  in  search  of  more 
smiling  lands.  Caesar  hastened  to  Geneva,  pursued  them, 
and  brought  them  to  an  engagement,  in  which  Roman  tactics 
and  discipline  speedily  triumphed  over  ignorant  courage.  He 
followed  their  enfeebled  forces,  and  compelled  them  to  sur- 
render. They  were  received  as  allies,  and  a  colony  was 
placed,  for  future  security,  at  the  principal  pass  of  Jura. 

In  some  parts  of  Gaul  conrcc!eracies  were  formed  against 
the  Romans,  in  others  oppressed  states  called  on  Cnsar  for 
protection :  one  after  anotner  the  confederacies  and  tlie  sUites 
fell  before  his  genius.     Uurmg  a  command  of  ten  years  (lor 
12* 


138  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

bj  tJie  influence  of  Pompeius.  it  nad  been  prolonged)  he  re- 
duced the  entire  of  Gaul,  crossed  the  Rhine,  carried  the  arms 
of  Rome  into  tiie  gloom  of  the  Hercynian  forest,  and  passed 
the  channel  which  divides  from  the  continent  the  island  of 
Britain,  hitherto  known  only  by  name  to  the  mhabitants  of 
Italy. 

Each  day  filled  Rome  with  wonder  by  the  mtelligence 
that  arrived  of  the  victories  of  Csesar  in  Gaul.  His  influence 
and  the  number  of  his  partisans  in  Rome  were  great.  He 
aided  Pompeius  and  Crassus  to  get  the  consulate:  he  was 
continued  in  his  Gallic  command.  Pompeius  took  Africa  and 
Spain  as  his  province ;  Crassus  preferred  the  wealthy,  luxu- 
rious Syria.  Pompeius  remained  at  Rome,  and  administered 
his  provinces  by  lieutenants.  Crassus  hastened  to  Asia,  where 
the  Parthians  were  now  in  arms  against  the  republic.  He 
marched  against  them,  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  was  near 
Carrhse  defeated  with  great  loss  by  Surena,  the  Parthian 
c.  commander.  He  surrendered,  and  was  put  to  death,  and  his 
64.  skull  filled  with  molten  gold  as  a  reproach  of  his  avarice. 

Julia,  the  wife  of  Pompeius,  was  also  dead;  the  bonds 
which  had  kept  the  two  most  powerful  and  ambitious  men  of 
Rome  from  discord  were  now  both  removed.  Pompeius  could 
not  endure  a  rival,  Ctesar  a  superior.  All  prudent  men  saw 
that  the  sword  must  be  the  arbiter.  The  nobility  all  looked 
up  to  Pompeius  as  the  chief  support  of  the  aristocracy.  He 
was  appointed  consul  without  a  colleague.  He  remained  still 
at  Rome ;  and  the  troops  in  his  province  were  commanded  by 
able  and  faithful  officers.  He  sought  to  have  the  dictatorship 
renewed  in  his  person.  Csesar  and  his  friends  required  tliat 
he  should  be  nominated  consul  in  his  absence,  as  more  ex- 
traordinary transgressions  of  usage  had  been  done  in  the  case 
of  Pompeius.  Ceesar  having  now  completed  the  conquest  of 
Gaul,  and  thus  established  a  frontier  against  the  Germans,  the 
people  whom  Italy  had  now  most  to  dread,  was  meanwhile 
returning  to  Rome.  All  the  towns  of  the  province  of  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  vied  in  rendering  honors  and  hospitality  to  the 
amiable  conqueror  and  tranquillizer  of  Gaul.  Pompeius  sent 
to  demand  of  Ceesar  that  he  should  give  up  two  legions  which 
he  had  lent  him :  they  were  given  up.  The  senate  then  de- 
creed that  Cffisar  should  disband  his  legions,  and  seek  the 
consulate  like  any  other  private  man.  The  heads  of  the  state 
and  senate,  from  various  motives,  concurred  in  this  decree. 
Cato,  who  never  looked  to  expediency,  but  to  right,  supported 
it.  Cicero  in  vain  sought  to  mediato.  Curio,  a  man  of  talent 
and  eloquence,  but  profligate  morals,  and  M.  Antonius,  his 
colleague  in  the  tribunate,  whose  character  resembled  his,  but 


GHAP,  VIM.     EOME  TILL  THE  END  OF  TirE  REPUBLIC.  139 

who  excellod  him  in  military  skill,  were  zealous  partisans  of 
Ceesar.  All  the  other  public  officers  were  on  the  side  of 
Pompeius,  who  maintained  tliat  the  army  was  averse  to  Ciesar, 
and  reckoned  himself  certain  of  the  attachment  of  ten  legions. 
Without  waiting  for  the  declaration  of  Caesar,  the  senate,  in 
an  evil  hour  for  them,  issued  their  decree,  that  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  executive  should  exert  themselves  for  the  defence 
of  the  republic,  that  troops  should  be  raised,  and  Cn.  Pom- 
peius supported  out  of  the  public  treasury.  Meantime  Caesar's 
answer  arrived,  offering  to  disband  his  army,  all  but  one 
legion,  and  to  come  and  seek  the  consulate  as  a  private  citi- 
zen ;  but  even  his  presence  was  dreaded  in  Rome.  When 
the  news  reached  Caesar,  he  had  but  five  cohorts  with  him ; 
the  rest  of  his  troops  were  dispersed  in  numerous  towns.  He 
was  near  Rimini,  on  the  banks  of  a  little  stream  called  the 
Rubicon,  where  Proper  Italy  was  considered  to  end,  and 
which  no  general  could  venture  to  pass  without  permission 
of  the  senate,  under  penalty  of  being  declared  a  public 
enemy.  It  was  a  moment  of  importance,  not  to  Csesar  only, 
but  to  the  future  world.  Should  he  submit,  or  should  he  lead 
his  army  against  Rome,  against  his  country  ]  On  horseback, 
in  the  open  air,  Ctesar  all  night  long  pondered  this  weighty 
question.  At  daybreak,  his  anxious  soldiers  found  him  still 
riding  to  and  fro,  deep  sunk  in  thought.  At  length  he  cried 
"  The  die  is  cast,"  gave  his  horse  the  spurs,  and  sprang  across 
the  stream,  followed  by  his  troops. 

Civil  War  of  CcBsar  and  Pompeius. 

All  the  towns  of  Italy  opened  their  gates  to  Caesar  as  he 
approached  them ;  the  garrisons  all  joined  his  standard.  Cor- 
finium  alone  resisted ;  but  its  garrison  also  passed  over  to 
Caesar,  and  Domitius,  its  governor,  and  his  officers,  entered 
Lhe  camp  of  the  conqueror  as  captives,  and  experienced  only 
clemency.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  the  approach  of 
Caesar,  Pompeius,  Cicero,  Cato,  the  consuls,  and  the  senate 
abandoned  Rome  in  haste,  and  fled  to  Capua.  Caesar  still  ad- 
vanced, making  every  day  proposals  of  peace.  When  he 
drew  near  to  Brundusium,  Pompeius  and  his  friends  passed 
over  to  Greece :  he  marched  to  Rome,  assembled  the  senate 
and  people,  and  declared  tliat  he  was  driven  by  the  conduct 
of  his  enemies  to  act  as  he  was  doing.  Then  knowing  that 
the  main  strength  of  Pompeius  lay  in  the  army  in  Spain,  com- 
manded by  Afranius  and  Petreius,  he  resolved  to  march  against 
it  without  delay.  He  took  money  out  of  the  treasury,  and 
set  out  for  Spain.  Massilia  opposed  his  passage,  but  soon  was 
forced  to  open  her  gates.     The  obstacles  presented  by  the 


140  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I, 

rivers  and  mountains  of  Spain  were  surmounted  by  the  genius 
of  Cffisar.  The  Pompeian  generals,  notwithstanding  their 
advantageous  positicn,  were  forced  to  surrender  llieniseives 
and  their  armies,  without  fighting  a  single  battle.  Having 
conquered  the  army,  he  hastened  to  engage  the  general, 
passed  rapidly  through  Gaul  and  Italy,  embarked  at  Brundu- 
sium,  and  landed  his  troops  at  Dyrrhacliium. 

Pompeius  had  summoned  to  his  standard  the  troops  of  the 
kings  of  the  East,  whom  he  had  formerly  vanquished;  (Jreece 
and  Africa  contributed  to  augment  his  forces;  the  majesty  of 
the  senate  was  in  his  camp  ;  he  himself  called  back  the  vig()r. 
energy,  and  skill  of  his  younger  days.  But  he  was  not  allowed 
to  follow  the  dictates  of  his  wisdom  and  experience ;  his  cause 
was  regarded  as  that  of  the  republic;  and  each  unwarlike 
senator  fancied  he  had  a  right  to  blame  and  reproach  the  in- 
activity of  the  general.  The  army  of  Cffisar  was  less  nu- 
merous, but  better  composed ;  his  plans  were  controlled  by 
none ;  his  soldiers  placed  implicit  confidence  in  his  talents  and 
fortune. 

The  judicious  plan  adopted  by  Pompeius  was  to  protract 
the  war,  to  weary  out  and  exhaust  by  delay  his  adversary. 
The  taunts  of  his  associates  mdiiced  him  to  quit  his  fortified 
camp.  Instead  of  returning  to  Italy,  where  the  name  of  the 
republic  might  have  operated  powerfully  in  his  favor,  he  de- 
scended into  the  plains  of  Thessaly.  He  drew  up  his  forces 
near  Pharsalus.  The  Csesarians  fell  on  with  rapidity  sword 
in  hand.  The  cavalry  on  one  of  the  wings  of  the  Pompeians 
pursued  a  body  of  Caesarian  cavalry,  who  had  fled ;  they 
passed  the  three  ordinary  ranks  of  a  Roman  army,  when,  to 
their  surprise,  they  encountered  a  fourth :  without  a  moment's 
deliberation,  they  fled  to  the  neighboring  heights.  The  op- 
posite Cffisarian  wing  attacked  that  which  was  now  denuded 
of  its  horse ;  the  three  ranks  of  the  Caesarian  army  fell  into 
one ;  the  Pompeians  could  not  resist  the  shock ;  they  gave 
way;  Pompeius  fled,  and  the  day  was  irrecoverably  lost. 
Caesar,  with  his  usual  humanity,  rode  through  the  field,  call- 
ing on  liis  men  to  spare  the  Roman  citizens.  All  the  letter.^ 
and  papers  he  found  in  the  tent  of  Pompeius  he  committed 
to  the  flames,  without  reading  them.  Next  day  the  rest  of 
the  Pompeian  army  surrendered.  Cato,  not  yet  despairing 
of  the  fortune  of  the  republic,  passed  over  to  Corcyra,  and 
thence  to  Africa,  to  renew  the  conflict  now,  not  for  Pompeius, 
but  for  the  laws  and  constitution. 

Pompeius  fled  to  the  sea,  and  embarked  for  Lesbos,  where 
his  wife,  Cornelia,  was  awaiting  the  event  of  the  war.  The 
maxims  o*^  philosophy  which  he  had  always  cultivated,  were 


/    -  O  C-- 


THE  MESSENGER  OF  Till:  ARVERNI  SENT  TO  THE  ROMAN  CAMP. 


o 

s 


^HAP.  VIII.    ROME  TILL  THE  END  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.  143 

now  his  consolation.  In  doubt  whether  he  had  better  Kx)k  to 
the  Parthians,  to  Juba,  king  of  Numidia,  or  to  Ptolemy  of 
Egypt  tor  support,  he  preferred  the  last,  whose  father  his 
power  had  reatared  to  his  throne.  He  sailed  for  Egypt  the 
ministers  of  the  feeble  young  monarch  dreaded  his  arrival ; 
and  by  their  treacherous  contrivance,  the  great  Roman  w:is  b.  c 
murdered  in  sight  of  his  wife,  and  his  naked  body  cast  on  the  49, 
strand,  where  it  was  indebted  for  funeral  honors  to  the  grati- 
tude and  humanity  of  an  old  Roman  soldier.  Cffisar,  who 
speedily  arrived  in  Egypt,  shed  tears  over  the  head  of  his 
rival  which  was  presented  to  him. 

Events  till  the  Death  of  Ccesar. 

The  charms  of  Cleopatra,  the  fair  queen  of  Egypt,  detained 
Caesar  in  Alexandria.  In  a  tumult,  excited  by  his  partiality 
for  that  princess  against  her  brother,  he  narrowly  escaped 
death  by  throwing  himself  into  the  sea,  and  swimming  to  a 
ship.  A  battle  soon  after  took  place ;  the  Egyptians  were 
worsted,  and  Ptolemy  lost  his  life  in  the  waters.  Cssar  be- 
stowed the  entire  kingdom  upon  Cleopatra,  who  had  two  chil- 
dren by  him. 

From  Egypt  Csesar  proceeded  to  Lesser  Asia  against  Phar- 
naces  king  of  Pontus,  probably  to  give  the  Pompeiaiis  an  op- 
portunity of  drawing  together  all  their  forces.  Veni,  vidi, 
vici  was  his  account  to  the  senate  of  the  war  against  the 
Pontic  prince.  He  soon  made  his  appearance  in  Africa,  and 
defeated  all  the  armies  opposed  to  him.  Cato,  no  longer  con- 
fiding in  the  republic,  slew  himself  at  Utica :  his  example 
was  followed  by  Scipio,  who  had  commanded  the  army.  Juba  i 
and  Petreius  slew  each  other  after  supper. 

The  other  Pompeian  commanders  retired  to  Spain.  At 
Munda  the  two  sons  of  Pompeius  gave  battle  to  Cajsar,  who 
never  ran  greater  risk  of  seeing  fortune  desert  him.  Despe- 
rate effort  gained  him  the  victory,  and  one  of  the  sons  of 
Pompeius  remained  slain  on  the  field.  The  Pompeian  party 
was  now  completely  crushed ;  all  opposition  to  Ca;sar  was 
at  an  end.  He  returned  to  Rome,  and  triumphed  over  ail 
the  countries  he  had  subdued.  He  vv;is  entitled  father  of 
his  country,  and  made  dictator  for  life.  Mild  and  clement, 
lie  persecuted  none ;  and  Rome,  beneath  his  sway,  was  en- 
joying tranquillity.  As  high  pontiff,  he  undertook  and  ac- 
complished the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  and  formed  the 
plan  of  a  new  legal  code.  Employment  being  necessary  for 
tlie  legions,  war  was  meditated  against  the  Parthians,  to 
avenge  the  death  of  Crassus,  or  against  tlie  people  on  tlie 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea. 


a 


144  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I 

In  her  present  state  of  corruption,  the  government  of  such 
a  man  as  Ccesar  was  the  greatest  blessing  that  could  befal 
Rome.  The  virtues  requisite  in  a  republic  were  no  longer 
to  be  found  in  her ;  it  was  now  her  destiny  to  receive  a  mas- 
ter, and  the  world  could  not  match  the  man  into  whose  hands 
the  power  had  fallen.  But  the  old  Roman  sentiments  still 
smouldered  in  some  bosoms ;  the  lessons  and  acts  of  Cato 
were  still  remembered  with  approbation;  and  a  conspiracy 
was  formed,  in  which  some  of  the  noblest  and  most  virtuous 
men  of  Rome  took  part.  Men  who  owed  their  lives  to  his 
clemency,  their  fortunes  to  his  favor,  impelled  by  a  false  idea 
of  patriotism  and  public  virtue,  armed  their  hands  against 
c  him ;  and  on  the  ides  of  March,  in  the  708th  year  of  Rtnae 
'•^-  Caesar  fell  in  the  senate-house,  pierced  by  three-and-twenty 
wounds. 

Civil  War  with  Brutus  and  Cassius. 

The  two  principal  of  the  conspirators  were  Brutus  and 
Cassius.  Of  tlie  purity  of  their  motives,  especially  of  those 
of  the  former,  there  can  be  little  doubt:  the  wisdom  of  them 
is  more  questionable.  They  removed  a  mild  despot;  they 
brought  back  on  their  country  the  days  of  Marius  and  Sulla. 

Cicero  sought  to  establish  concord  by  making  the  senate 
ratify  all  the  acts  of  Caesar,  by  bringing  in  an  amnesty,  and 
by  sending  the  conspirators  away  to  their  respective  prov- 
inces. But  Marcus  Antonius  had,  by  a  culpable  lenity  of  the 
conspiratfjrs,  been  spared,  and  he  now  aimed  at  establishing 
his  own  power  amidst  the  general  confusion.  Against  him 
Cicero  and  the  senate  found  it  necessary  to  set  up  the  young 
Octavianus,  the  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Ctesar.  Anto- 
nius began  the  war  by  attempting  to  drive  Decimus  Brutus, 
one  of  the  conspirators,  out  of  his  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
He  besieged  him  in  Mutina.  The  consuls,  Hirtius  and  Pansa, 
marched  to  the  relief  of  Brutus ;  Octavianus  joined  them, 
and  Antonius  was  forced  to  fly  into  Transalpine  Gaul.  The 
two  consuls  fell  before  Mutina,  not  without  suspicion  of 
treachery  on  the  part  of  Octavianus,  whose  dissimulation  and 
want  of  moral  principle  early  began  to  display  themselves. 
But  the  senate  dreamed,  that  they  would  find  no  difficulty  in 
keeping  hun  down,  if  by  his  means  they  could  get  rid  of 
Antonius 

Lepidus  and  Plancus  commanded  armies  in  GauL  Anto- 
nius gained  them  over  to  his  side.  He  wrote  to  Octavianus, 
who,  though  appointed  consul  in  the  room  of  Pansa,  was  now 
every  day  on  worse  and  worse  terms  with  the  senate,  to  show 
him  that  it  would  be  more  for  his  advantage  to  join  him.     A 


OHAP.  VIII.    ROME  TILL  THE  END  OP  THE  REPUBLIC.  14? 

meetino-  was  held  between  tlie  two  and  I.epidus,  in  a  little  ^  g 
island  formed  by  two  streams,  near  the  i.;odern  Bolog'na,  and  43 
a  second  triumvirate,  of  a  far  more  odious  character  than  the 
former,  was  agreed  on.  Tables  of  proscription  were  drawn 
up,  containing  the  names  of  300  senators,  2000  knights,  and 
many  other  distinguished  citizens.  All  ties  of  friendship  and 
kindred  were  postponed  to  the  gratification  of  ambition  and 
revenge.  In  the  fatal  list  were  L.  Caesar,  the  uncle  ot  Anto- 
nius;  Paulus,  the  brother  of  Lepidus;  and  Cicero,  the  friend 
and  supporter  of  Octavianus.  A  man  whose  life  and  honor 
•^had  once  defended  was  base  and  ungrateful  enough  to  be 
the  murderer  of  the  grea.  orator ;  his  head  was  brought  to 
Fulvia,  the  widow  of  Clodius  and  wife  of  Antonius;  and  witli 
the  mean  revenge  of  a  profligate  woman,  she  pierced  witli 
her  bodkin  tiiat  tongue  which  had  described  in  true  and  lively 
colors  the  vices  and  enormities  of  her  husbands. 

The  triumvirs  resolved  to  destroy  Cassius,  wno  governed 
Syria,  and  Brutus,  who  commanded  in  Macedonia.  The  united 
army  of  the  latter  amounted  to  seventeen  legions.  The  ar- 
mies engaged  on  the  plain  of  Piiilippi,  in  Macedonia.  Brutus 
was  successful  on  his  side,  and  took  the  camp  of  Octavianus.  43 
Cassius,  who  was  opposed  to  Antonius,  was  not  so  fortunate. 
He  thought,  deceived  by  his  short  sight,  that  all  was  lost,  and 
slew  b  jnself.  A  few  days  afterwards,  Brutus,  feeling  that 
the  fortune  of  the  republic  was  gone,  followed  his  example, 
and  many  other  Romans  of  noble  birth  and  lofty  sentiments 
disdained  to  survive  Brutus,  Cassius,  and  the  republic. 

War  between  Octavianus  and  Antonius. 

Sextus  Pompeius  alone  remained  to  oppose  the  victors. 
His  power  was  on  the  sea,  and  he  long  continued  to  give 
them  uneasiness.  Fulvia  soon  excited  disturbance  among 
the  triumvirs  themselves.  Lepidus  wavered  which  side  to 
take ;  but  Octavianus  gained  over  his  legions,  and  deprived 
hii  1  of  his  rank  and  power.  The  unfortunate  citizens  were 
the  victims  of  these  quarrels  between  their  masters.  Octa- 
vianus's  forty-seven  legions  must  have  lands,  and  the  paternal 
properties  of  numerous  respectable  families  were  confiscated 
to  gratify  their  cupidity. 

Antonius  was  in  Asia,  Pacorus  the  Parthian  had  invaded 
Uie  Roman  dominions  there,  but  was  repelled  by  Ventidius. 
Antonius  would  avenge  the  honor  of  Rome  by  reciprocal  in- 
vasion. He  was  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  country  he  en- 
tered, and  was  forced  to  retire  with  loss.  He  went  to  Egypt; 
and  in  the  arms  of  Cleopatra  ^ibaufloned  himself  to  the  licen 
tiou3  indulgences  he  delighted  in,  and  ofTended  and  insulted 


148  rasTonY  oir  the  world.  pakt  l. 

his  wily  colleague  by  divorcing  his  virtuous  sister,  Octavia. 
Both  sides  prepared  for  war.  Octavianus,  wliose  policy  from 
the  commencement  had  been  to  identify  his  own  cause  and 
that  of  the  republic,  and  who,  all  his  life  long,  affected  to 
govern  in  the  name  of  the  senate,  and  under  the  ancient 
forms,  gave  out,  that  he  took  arms  solely  to  prevent  the  re- 
public being  subjected  to  an  Egyptian.  He  proceeded  to 
Greece  with  eight  legions  and  five  cohorts,  and  he  had  a  fleet 
of  250  ships.  His  principal  officer  was  M.  Agrippa,  a  man 
of  experience  and  ability.  The  engagement  took  place  oft 
the  cape  of  Actium  in  Epirus.  Cleopatra  was  there,  and  set 
the  example  of  flight.  She  was  followed  by  Antonius:  the 
rout  was  total.  Octavianus  exercised  clemency,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  hostile  army  surrendered.  He  pursued 
the  love-sick  Antonius  to  Egypt,  who,  on  a  false  report  of  the 
death  of  Cleopatra,  threw  himself  on  his  sword ;  and  the 
Egyptian  queen,  having  in  vain  essayed  her  arts  on  the  cold 
calculating  Octavianus,  sooner  than  be  led  in  chains  to  adorn 
the  triumph  of  the  victor,  and  glu*^  '■Hie  eyes  of  the  populace 
of  Rome  with  the  sight  of  the  okugnZer  and  the  ^ast  of  the 
Ptolemies  preceding  tlie  chariot  of  the  adopted  son  of  him 
who  had  done  aomage  to  her  charms,  gave  herself  voluntary 
death  by  *he  oite  of  an  asp,  or  the  prick  of  a  poisoned  needle. 
Egypt,  in  the  295th  year  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  became  a  Roman  province. 
i  c.  In  the  same  year,  the  479th  from  the  establishment  of  the 
29-  republic,  the  724th  from  the  building  of  the  city,  was  Csesar 
Octavianus,  now  styled  Augustus,  invested  with  all  the  power 
heretofore  exercised  by  the  consuls  and  tribunes  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  was  a  monarch,  without  appearing  such.  Every 
tenth  year  he  affected  to  lay  down  and  again  receive  his  ex- 
traordinary powers  from  the  senate  and  people.  His  sway 
was  mild  and  beneficent ;  stately  edifices  rose  to  adorn  the 
city ;  public  spectacles  and  abundance  of  food  satisfied  the 
people ;  peace  was  enjoyed  by  all  the  empire.  The  memory 
of  the  republic  was  nearly  obliterated ;  old  men  only  retained 
a  recollection  of  its  worst  period,  and  shuddered  as  they  called 
to  mind  the  horrors  of  the  civil  wars,  and  the  blood-tiaced 
tables  of  proscription.  The  reign  of  Augustus  was  halcyon 
days  after  those  storms ;  but,  unhappily  for  Rome,  this  state 
was  of  no  long  and  steady  duration.  The  government  was 
one  of  power,  not  of  law ;  it  was  a  despotism ;  and  soon,  be- 
neath the  tyranny  and  caprice  of  the  emperors,  even  the  tur- 
bulence of  the  latter  days  of  the  republic  was  looked  bick  to 
with  a  sigh  of  regret. 


CHAP    lit.  ROME  AN  fcMPJRB.  151 

CHAP.   IX. 

ROME    AN    EMPIRE. 

Emperors  of  the  Ccesarian  Family. 

Among  the  titles  of  Augustus  was  thatof  Imperator,  whence 
emperor,  a  word  derived  from  the  ancient  language  of  Italy," 
and  signifying  general  of  an  army.  It  was  retained  by  hi*, 
successors,  as  was  also  that  of  Caesar,  his  family  name. 

The  empire  over  which  Augustus  now  ruled  extended,  in 
Rurope,  to  the  ocean,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube;  in  Asia,  to 
the  Euphrates;  in  Africa,  to  Ethiopia  and  the  sandy  deserta 
Its  population  was  estimated  at  120  millions.  Satisfied  with 
this  extent  of  dominion,  Augustus  sought  not  himself  to  ex- 
tend it,  and  advised  his  successors  to  be  guided  by  his  exam- 
ple. He  therefore  abstained  from  wars,  except  such  on  the 
frontiers  as  were  deemed  necessary  to  keep  up  the  skill  and 
discipline  of  the  legions,  and  inspire  the  barbarians  with  a 
salutary  dread  of  Rome.  In  these  slight  wars  the  imperial 
arms  were  usually  successful :  one  memorable  defeat  alone  is 
recorded :  the  legions  of  Varus  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
German  leader,  Herman,  or  Arminius.  The  praetorian  guards, 
afterwards  so  fatal  to  the  empire,  were  instituted  by  Augua 
tus  to  protect  his  person,  and  to  crush  the  first  germs  of  re 
bellion.  But  he  dispersed  them  tliroiigh  Italy,  and  they  kne\' 
not  then  their  own  strength. 

The  temple  of  Janus,  to  close  which  in  time  of  peace  hor 
been  a  ceremony  in  use  from  the  origin  of  the  state,  w&t 
three  times  closed  during  the  reign  of  this  pacific  prmce.  The 
arts  and  sciences  wliich  adorn  peace  were  warmly  patronizef 
by  him  and  his  minister  the  accomplished  Mecffina.s.  Thf 
house  of  Augustus,  for  he  dwelt  not  in  a  palace,  was  the  re- 
ort  of  the  poet  and  the  scholar.     The  monarch  hinibclf  wai 

writer,  and  he  enjoyed  tlie  felicity,  rare  in  his  station,  ol 
possessing  friends.     By  the  people  he  was  adored  as  a  god. 

Yet  the  happiness  of  Augustus  was  not  without  alloy.  He 
could  not,  though  he  might  seek  to  palliate  by  the  plea  of 
necessity,  efface  the  recollection  of  the  proscription-tables  of 
his  younger  days,  and  the  base  surrender  of  his  friend  the 
virtuous  Cicero.  The  defeat  of  Varus  haunted  his  dreams  by 
night.  He  had  no  male  issue  to  succeed  him;  he  had  to 
mourn  over  the  untimely  death  of  tne  promising  youth  Mar- 
cellus  and  of  the  valiant  Drusus ;  and  the  profligacy  of  hi* 


•  Embratur  is  the  term  in  the  Samnite  langumf«. 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

daughtei  Julia,  and  the  insatiable  ambition  of  his  wife  Livia, 
D.  embittered  his  declining  days.     Augustus  died  at  Nola  in 

L4.  Campania,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age,  having  governed  Rome 
with  absolute  sway  during  forty-four  years. 

In  the  year  of  Rome  753,  while  the  world  was  enjoying 
peace  under  Augustus,  and  the  "  fullness  oi'  time"  was  come, 
it  pleased  the  Almighty  to  send  forth  his  Son  Jesus  Christ, 
as  the  announcer  of  a  religion  more  pure  and  holy  than  any 
he  had  yet  given  to  man.  To  relate  the  circumstances  of  the 
life  and  death  of  the  Son  of  God  (with  which  every  reader 
must  be  supposed  familiar)  would  be  here  superfluous.  His 
religion,  though  persecuted,  gradually  spread  over  the  Roman 
world.  Uniiappily,  it  is  in  its  corrupted  state  that  it  becomes 
a  prominent  object  in  history. 

Tiberius,  the  son  of  Livia,  and  stepson  of  Augustus,  was 

!  i-  appouited  by  him  to  succeed.  This  prince  was  now  in  his 
55th  year.  All  the  bad  qualities  of  his  predecessor  were 
united  in  him ;  liis  good  ones  were  absent.  A  dark  and 
crooked  policy  characterized  all  his  acts :  the  establishment 
of  perfect  despotism,  the  abolition  of  all  forms  of  the  republic, 
was  his  object.  Restrained  at  first  by  fear  of  the  noble  Ger- 
manicus,  when  that  check  was  removed  by  death,  not  with- 
out suspicion  of  poison,  he  gave  a  loose  to  all  his  cruel  and 

11  sensual  propensities.  In  his  later  years,  he  retired  to  the 
island  of  Caprea  m  the  bay  of  Naples,  where  he  wallowed  in 
every  species  of  beastly  and  sensual  gratification.  His  cruel- 
ties at  Rome  were  meantime  directed  by  his  minister  Sejanus, 
until,  grown  suspected  by  his  master,  he  was  by  his  order  put 
to  death.  Tiberius  dying  left  the  world  to  a  monster  still 
more  ferocious  than  himself 

37  Caius  Caligula,  the  son  of  Germanicus,  and  grandnephew 
of  Tiberius,  displayed  tyranny  in  its  most  appalling  form. 
His  reign  commenced  with  mildness ;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  after  a  violent  fit  of  illness,  which,  perhaps,  disor 
dered  his  intellect,  a  cruelty,  the  most  absurd  and  capricious 
that  can  be  conceived,  commenced.  While  he  meditated 
raising  his  horse  to  the  consulship,  and  fed  him  out  ;f  gold, 
he  slaughtered  the  noblest  men  of  Rome  without  mercy, 
drove  men  in  herds  before  the  judgment-seat  to  receive  sen- 
tence of  death,  and  hunted  the  spectators  of  a  public  show 
into  the  waters  of  the  Tiber.  Four  years  the  empire  groaneo 
beneath  the  cruelty  of  this  frantic  savage.  At  length  the 
dagger  of  Chtereas  delivered  the  world  of  him. 

On  the  death  of  Caius,  the  senate,  detesting  the  tyranny 

41,  of  the  Cajsars,  deliberated  on  restoring  the  republic,  and 
abolishing'  the  imperial  power.  But  ere  two  days  had  elapsed 


^f'iiil, 


JHAP.  DC.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  155 

they  had  to  learn,  to  their  mortification,  that  there  was  now 
in  existence  a  power  g^reater  than  theirs  or  that  of  the  em- 
perors. Tiberius  had  collected  the  prjBtorian  guards,  a  body 
of  10,000  men,  from  the  quarters  in  which  the  policy  of  Au- 
gustus had  kept  them  dispersed;  and,  under  pretext  of  re- 
fieving  Italy  and  of  improving  their  disciphne,  had  fixed  them 
in  a  strongly-fortified  camp  on  the  Viminal  and  Quirinal 
hills.  The  guards  now  first  exhibited  their  power:  they 
proclaimed  Claudius,  the  weak-minded  brother  of  Caius,  em- 
peror, and  the  senate  received  with  submission  their  feeble 
ruler.  Not  naturally  bloody,  yet  the  instrument  of  women 
and  freedmen,  the  annals  of  his  reign  exhibit  thirty-five  sen- 
ators and  three  hundred  knights  falling  by  the  hand  of  the 
executioner  during  the  thirteen  years  that  he  filled  the  thrune. 
Claudius  was  poisoned,  to  make  room  for  his  successor.  \.  t 

Domitius  Nero  was  the  son  of  Agrippina,  and  pupil  of  54 
Seneca.  The  first  five  years  of  his  reign  were  mild  and  just. 
But  his  furious  passions  soon  grew  impatient  of  restraint.  He 
put  to  death  his  mother,  his  brother,  his  tutor;  set  fire  to  the 
city,  charged  the  Christians  with  the  crime,  and  began  the 
persecution  of  that  sect.  He  prostituted  the  dignity  of  his 
station,  and  the  majesty  of  Rome,  by  appearmg  as  a  singer 
on  the  public  stage.  The  patience  of  mankind  could  no 
longer  endure  this  combination  of  cruelty,  insult,  debauchery, 
ami  meanness:  several  conspiracies  were  formed  against 
him,  but  without  success;  the  tyrant  discovering  them  in 
time.  At  length  Galba  was  declared  emperor,  and  Nero  by 
the  senate  pronounced  a  public  enemy,  and  sentenced  to 
death  more  majorum,  which  sentence  he  avoided  by  a  volun- 
tary death.  Yet,  vile  as  he  was,  there  were  those  who  loved  his 
memory,  and  raised  monuments  to  the  monster  who  had  per- 
petrated so  many  crimes.  It  is  not  undeserving  of  notice,  that 
within  a  century  after  the  death  of  Cato,  the  senate,  which 
once  gave  laws  to  the  world,  was  convoked  on  the  solemn 
occasions  of  the  marriage  of  Nero  with  two  of  his  own  sex. 
So  utterly  can  the  greatest  institutions  be  degraded ! 

Emperors  chosen  by  the  Army. 

Galba,  a  rnan  of  honorable  birth  and  advanced  age,  was    "'8 
raised  to  the  throne  by  the  army  which  he  commanded  iu 
Spain.     The  senate  confirmed  the  choice  of  the  army ;  but 
he  sought  to  restrain  the  prtetorians,  and  he  atoned  for  his 
boldness  with  his  life. 

Otho,  the  partaker  of  the  guilty  pleasures  of  Nero,  was    69 
placed  on  the  throne  by  the  party  which  murdered  Galba. 
The  army  of  the  Rhino  had  meantime  proclaimed  tlieir  gen- 


156  mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PARI  1 

eral  Vitellius.  Otho,  though  a  voluptuary,  still  retained  some 
noble  feelings ;  and  when  in  the  battle  at  Bedriacum  victory 
had  declared  for  the  generals  of  Vitellius,  Otho,  to  spare  thr 
blood  of  citizens,  put  a  voluntary  termination  to  his  own  life. 
A.  D.  Vitellius,  devoted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  viewed  the 
70.  imperial  power  only  as  atlbrding  the  means  of  unbounded  in 
dulgence.  But  he  was  soon  roused  from  his  dream  of  luxury, 
by  tidings  of  the  Syrian  army  having  proclaimed  their  gene- 
ral Flavins  Vespasianus  worthiest  of  the  throne.  Vitellius 
tprminated  his  brief  reign  by  a  cruel  death. 

During  this  period  the  tranquillity  of  the  empire  was  dis- 
turbed in  every  quarter.  The  Jews,  oppressed  by  tiieir  gov- 
ernors, torn  by  parties,  deceived  by  a  false  interpretation,  but 
flattering  to  their  national  vanity,  of  their  ancient  prophecies, 
broke  out  into  rebellion,  which,  persisted  in  with  obstinacy 
and  judicial  blindness,  cost  their  nation  the  remnant  of  their 
independence,  the  lives  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  their 
noble  city,  and  the  magnificent  temple  of  Jehovah,  the  point 
of  union  and  pride  of  Israel.  Rome,  too,  witnessed,  at  this 
period,  a  second  conflagration  of  the  splendid  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter Optimus  Maximus,  which  crowned  the  Capitol.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  wrath  of  Heaven  was  now  poured  out  on  guilty  man 
and  his  works.  At  Rome  were  to  be  seen  each  flay  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  soldiery,  the  clash  of  arms,  and  false  charges 
brought  before  judicial  tribunals;  war  menaced  or  devastated 
the  provinces;  Civilis  raised  Gaul  in  rebellion;  the  Germans 
passed  the  Rhine ;  the  Parthian  cavalry  hovered  ready  to 
descend  on  Syria. 

The  Flavian  Family. 

70  Vt«pasian  was  at  the  head  of  the  army  acting  against  the 
rebellious  Jews,  when  he  was  proclaimed  emperor.  He  re- 
paired to  Rome,  leaving  his  son,  the  mild  and  virtuous  Titus, 
to  carry  on  the  war.  Though  raised  to  the  throne  by  the 
army,  he  would  receive  his  power  from  the  senate,  who  be- 
stowed on  him  all  the  offices,  rights,  and  powers  held  by  Augus- 
tus, Tiberius,  and  Claudius,  in  as  full  and  unlimited  a  maimer 
as  they  had  possessed  them ;  and  by  his  conduct  during  the 
nine  years  he  reigned,  he  showed  himself  deserving  of  the 
absolute  power  he  possessed. 

The  empire  now  enjoyed  peace.  Titus  had  ended  the 
Jewish  war.  The  Parthians,  seeing  no  internal  discord,  ab- 
Btained  from  hostilities.  Judicial  persecution  ceased  at  Rome. 
The  emueror  and  his  son  hved  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the 
best  anu  wisest  men.  The  senate  regained  its  consideration. 
The  finances  were  put  into  a  proper  condition ;  military  dis- 


TRAP.  IX.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  159 

cipline  restored:  cities  built,  and  roads  constructed.  An 
excessive  frugality,  hardly,  in  such  times,  to  be  retarded  as 
a  fault,  was  the  blemish  most  observed  in  the  character  of 
Vespasian.  His  deatii  would  have  been  an  irreparable  loss 
to  Rome,  had  he  not  left  such  a  successor  as  Titua 

Titus,  the  Delight  of  Mankind,  amiable,  just,  generous,  a  e 
and  brave,  reigned  but  for  two  short  years,  and  in  t^at  space   ''^• 
this  virtuous  prince  had  to  witness  many  calamities.     His        , 
heart  was  torn  with  anguish  at  being  obliged  to  part  with  the 
Jewish  princess  Berenice,  whom  he  loved  so  tenderly ;  Vesu- 
vius raged  with  unwonted  fury,  and  buried  beneath  its  ashes 
the  towns  of  Hercuianeum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabiae,  and  wasted 
a  large  portion  of  Campania;  a  conflagration  broke  out  in 
Rome,  and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  city,  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  destructive  pestilence. 

Domitian,  the  brother  of  Titus,  succeeded.  Tlie  happiness  8i 
of  the  empire  seemed  to  have  expired  with  liis  father  and 
brother,  and  Nero  to  have  returned  to  life.  Yet  Domitian 
dreaded  to  venture  on  the  excesses  of  this  last-named  tyrant, 
and  fear  set  some  bounds  to  his  cruelty.  He  exhausted  the 
treasury,  while  he  embellished  the  city  with  magnificent 
buildings,  and  engaged  in  expensive  and  inglorious  wars. 
His  reign  was,  however,  distinguished  by  the  real  conquest 
of  Britain  by  the  gallant  Agricola,  whose  death  the  jealous 
emperor,  if  he  did  not  occasion,  did  not  regret.  After  a  tyran- 
ny of  fifteen  years,  his  life  and  reign  were  terminated  by 
a  conspiracy,  in  which  his  own  wife  shared. 

The  good  Emperors. 

The  senate  was  assembled  on  the  death  of  the  tyrant,  and  96 
the  purple  was  oflfered  to  Nerva,  one  of  their  body,  a  just 
and  virtuous  man,  but  far  advanced  in  life.  To  give  security 
to  his  authority,  and  assure  a  virtuous  successor  to  the  empire, 
he  adopted  the  valiant  and  upright  Trajan,  who  then  com- 
manded a  large  army  in  Lower  Germany.  The  aged  em- 
peror, at  the  same  time,  declared  Iiim  his  colleague  for  life  in 
the  empire.  Nerva,  during  his  short  reign,  reduced  the 
taxes,  and  made  a  distribution  of  lands  among  the  poor. 

Trajan  was  forty  years  of  age  when  adopted  by  Nerva:  pc 
of  his  virtue  a  decisive  evidence  was  exhibited,  for  more  tl  an 
250  years  after  his  death,  in  the  acclamation  of  the  senate 
to  each  new  emperor,  wishing  him  to  be  more  fortunate  tlian 
Augustus,  more  virtuous  than  Trajan.  The  military  and 
pacific  virtues  were  united  in  this  accomplished  prmce.  Just 
and  upright,  he  listened  to  the  meanest  suitor;  afliiblo,  he 
•vas  accessible   to  the   lowest  citizen.     Durinjr  a  Tci'sv  o' 


160  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I 

nineteen  years  but  one  senator  suffered  death,  and  he  was 
condemned  by  his  own  order.  He  lightened  the  burdens  of 
the  provinces,  declaring  that  the  hearts  of  loving  subjects 
Bhould  be  his  treasures.  He  selected  his  ministers  and  friends 
from  among  the  virtuous  and  the  good :  he  perfected  the 
code  of  laws,  adorned  Rome  with  stately  buildings,  and 
founded  a  magnificent  library.  In  war  he  extended  the  bounds 
of  the  empire  beyond  the  limits  set  to  it  by  Augustus ;  con- 
quered the  fruitful  plains  and  hills  of  Dacia;  curbed  the 
wild  hordes  of  Caucasus;  bowed  to  submission  the  emirs  of 
the  Arabian  deserts;  avenged  the  fate  of  Crassus,  and  took 
Ctesiphon,  the  Parthian  capital.  The  ships  of  Trajan  visited 
the  coasts  of  India.  He  died  at  Seleucia,  in  Cilicia;  whence 
his  body  was  brought  to  Rome,  where  it  was  received  by  the 
whole  senate  and  people,  and  buried  in  the  forum,  which 
bore  his  name,  beneath  the  lofty  pillar  which  rises  to  the 
height  of  140  feet,  adorned  with  his  deeds. 

4  0,      Hadrian,  it  is  thought,  had  been  adopted  by  Trajan.     He 

117.  was  also  an  able  and  virtuous  prince,  though  not  the  equai 
of  his  great  predecessor.  Hadrian  wisely  gave  up  several 
of  the  conquests  of  Trajan,  and  reduced  the  empire  to  its  old 
bounds  of  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Euphrates,  and 

121.  raised  in  Britain  a  barrier  against  the  incursions  of  the  un- 
tamed Caledonians.  During  his  reign  a  formidable  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Jews,  under  an  impostor,  named  Barchochebas, 
broke  out,  which  was  extinguished  in  the  blood  of  thousands 
of  that  obstinate  and  misguided  people.  This  emperor  made 
a  progress  through  his  dominions,  redressing  grievances  and 
diminishing  taxes;  and  he  regulated  his  court  in  the  most 
exact  manner.  He  was  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  though  his 
taste  was  none  of  the  purest.  As  age  came  on,  he  grew 
peevish  and  cruel ;  but  the  effects  of  these  ill  qualities  were 
mitigated  by  the  mildness  and  gentleness  of  Antoninus,  whom 
he  had  adopted  on  the  death  of  his  favorite  Lucius  Verus. 

[38  Antoninus,  surnamed  the  Pious,  from  his  affection  for  his 
adoptive  father,  was  one  of  those  rare  combinations  of  perfect 
virtue  which  the  visions  of  philosophy,  rather  than  real  life, 
present  as  seated  on  a  throne.  His  reign  flowed  on,  for  a 
space  of  twenty-three  years,  in  dignified  tranquillity :  wara 
interrupted  not  the  repose  of  the  empire :  neighboring  na- 
tions submitted  their  differences  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
virtuous  Antoninus.  He  closed  his  beneficent  career  by 
leaving  the  guidance  of  the  empire  to  an  accomplished  phi- 
losopher 

161.  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  would  willingly  have  trodden 
the  tranquil  course  of  his  predecessor ;  but  the  restless  ene- 


CBAP   IX.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  161 

niies  of  thy  empire  summoned  iie  philosophic  monarch  to 
the  defence  of  the  frontiers,  and  to  give  a  proof  that  the  study 
of  philosophy  does  not  disqualify  for  action.  Nations  of  Ger 
manic  race  united,  as  in  the  days  of  Marius,  to  pour  in  upon 
Italy ;  but  Aurelius  showed  them,  that  the  legions  of  Rome 
still  retained  their  discipline  and  valor.  The  Parthians  broke 
into  Syria :  the  emperor  speedily  drove  them  back  within 
their  own  limits.  Foreign  war  was  not  the  only  calamity 
that  afflicted  the  empire  in  this  reign ;  famine  and  its  constant 
attendant  pestilence,  ravaged  various  provinces.  The  Ger- 
mans, though  beaten,  still  renewed  their  attempts,  and  the 
emperor  died  during  his  eighth  winter  campaign  against  the 
Marcomanni.  Aurelius  was,  like  Augustus,  unhappy  in  his 
family:  his  wife  Faustina  disgraced  hira  by  her  licentiousness; 
and  the  disposition  of  his  son  Commodus  afforded  slender 
grounds  for  ijleasing  hope. 

From  Commodus  lo  Diocletian. 

The  most  vicious  succeeded  the  most  virtuous  of  mankind.  *•  » 
Commodus,  the  son  of  Aurelius,  was  a  profligate,  foolish  boy.  ^^ 
His  delight  was  in  the  indulgence  of  low  sordid  propensities; 
he  sought  for  glory  in  gladiatorial  skill ;  while  he  degraded 
the  majesty  of  the  empire,  by  setting  the  example  of  pur- 
chasing peace  from  the  barbarians.  His  father  had  made  the 
Marcomanni  feel  the  edge  of  the  Roman  steel ;  his  degene- 
rate son  bestowed  upon  them  Roman  gold.  Oppressive  taxa- 
tion once  more  galled  the  subjects;  the  blood  of  the  virtuous 
was  once  more  seen  to  flow ;  the  favor  of  his  father  availed 
not  to  save ;  Salvius  Julianus,  the  great  lawyer,  whom  Au- 
relius had  honored,  died  by  the  order  of  Commodua  The 
emperor  had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  Praetorians,  whom  he 
indulged  in  all  their  excesses.  These  were  his  protectors 
against  all  others,  and  he  might  mock  at  all  plots  of  the  sen- 
ate or  people ;  but  he  carried  his  tyranny,  whither  it  was 
rarely  carried  with  impunity,  into  his  own  household,  and  a 
conspiracy  delivered  the  Roman  world  of  the  wretch  who 
oppressed  it. 

Murder  thus,  after  a  long  interval,  again  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  palace  of  the  Ca;sars,  and  now  seemed  to  have 
made  it  its  permanent  abode.  Helvius  Pertinax,  the  prefect  191 
of  the  city,  a  man  of  virtue,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by 
the  conspirators,  who  would  fain  justify  their  deed  in  the 
eyes  of  the  world,  and  their  choice  was  confirmed  by  the 
senate.  But  the  Prsetorians  had  not  forgotten  their  own 
pf>wcr  on  a  similar  occasion;  and  they  liked  not  tlie  virtue 
14* 


162  mSTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  T 

and  regularity  of  the  new  monarch.     Pertbax  was,  tliere- 
fore,  speedily  deprived  of  throne  and  life. 

Prcetorian  insolence  now  attained  its  height.  Regardless 
of  the  dignity  and  honor  of  the  empire,  they  set  it  up  to  auc- 
tion.    The  highest  bidder  was  a  senator,  named  Didius  Ju- 

..  D.  lianus,  a  nephew  of  that  very  Salvius  who  had  suffered  for 

i93.  law  and  virtue  in  the  reign  of  Commodus.  The  legions  dis- 
dained to  receive  an  emperor  from  the  life-guards.  Those  ot 
Britain  proclaimed  their  general  Clodius  Albinus ;  those  of 
Asia,  Pescennius  Niger;  the  Pannoniau  legions,  Septimius 

l'J4  Severus.  This  last  was  a  man  of  bravery  and  conduct :  by 
valor  and  stratagem  he  successively  vanquished  his  rivals.  He 
maintained  the  superiority  of  the  Roman  arms  against  tlie 
Parthians  and  Caledonians.  His  reign  was  vigorous  and  ad- 
vantageous to  the  state ;  but  he  wanted  either  the  courage  or 
the  power  to  fully  repress  the  license  and  insubordination  of 
the  soldiery. 

211.  Severus  lefl  the  empire  to  his  two  sons.  Caracalla,  the 
elder,  a  prince  of  violent  and  untamable  passions,  disdained 
to  share  empire  with  any.  He  murdered  his  brother  and  col- 
league, the  more  gentle  Geta,  and  put  to  death  all  who  ven- 
tured to  disapprove  of  the  deed.  A  restless  ferocity  distin- 
guished the  character  of  Caracalla :  he  was  ever  at  war,  now 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  now  on  those  of  the  Euphrates. 
His  martial  impetuosity  daunted  his  enemies;  his  reckless 
cruelty  terrified  his  subjects.  But  the  army  loved  the  prince, 
who  set  no  value  on  any  but  a  soldier.  Alexander  the  Great 
was  the  model  this  profligate  fratricide  dared  to  set  before 
him.  No  greater  insult  could  be  offered  to  the  memory  of 
the  Macedonian.  During  a  Parthian  war,  Caracalla  gave 
offence  to  Macrinus,  the  commander  of  his  body-guard,  whc 
murdered  him. 

218.  Macrinus  seized  the  empire,  but  had  not  power  to  hold  it 
He  and  his  son  Diadumenianus,  an  amiable  youth  of  but 
eighteen  years,  were  put  to  death  by  the  army,  who  pro- 
claimed a  supposed  son  of  their  beloved  Caracalla. 

•iiti  This  youth  was  named  Elagabalus,  and  was  priest  of  the 
Sun  in  the  temple  of  Emesa,  in  Syria.  Every  vice  stained 
the  character  of  this  licentious,  effeminate  youth,  whose  name 
is  become  proverbial  for  sensual  indulgence :  he  possessed  no 
redeeming  quality,  had  no  friend,  and  was  put  to  death  by  his 
own  guards,  who,  vicious  as  they  were  themselves,  detc  sted 
vice  in  him. 

822  Alexander  Severus,  cousin  to  Elagabalus,  but  of  a  totall} 
opposite  character,  succeeded  that  vicious  prince.  All  es 
timable  qualities  were  imited  in  the  noble  and  accomplLshoc' 


CHAP.  IX.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  lo3 

Alexander.  He  delighted  in  the  society  of  the  learned  and 
the  wise ;  the  statues  of  the  sages  of  all  countries  adorned 
his  library;  and  their  works,  destined  for  the  improvement  of 
tnankind,  formed  his  constant  study.  But  the  love  of  learning 
and  virtue  did  not  in  him  smother  military  skill  and  valor; 
he  checked  the  martial  hordes  of  Germany,  and  led  the  Ro- 
man eagles  to  victory  against  the  Sassanides,  who  had  dis- 
placed the  Arsacides  in  the  dominion  over  Persia,*  and  re- 
vived the  claims  of  the  house  of  Cyrus  over  Anterior  Asia, 
Alexander,  victorious  in  war,  beloved  by  his  subjects,  deemed 
he  might  venture  on  introducing  more  regular  discipline  into 
tlie  army.  The  attempt  was  fatal,  and  the  amiable  monarch 
lost  his  life  in  the  mutiny  tliat  resulted. 

Maximin,  a  soldier,  originally  a  Thracian  shepherd,  distin-  ^  i, 
guished  by  his  prodigious  size,  strengtli,  and  appetite,  a  235 
stranger  to  all  civic  virtues  and  all  civic  rules,  rude,  brutal, 
cruel,  and  ferocious,  seated  himself  on  the  throne  of  the  noble 
and  virtuous  prince,  in  whose  murder  he  had  been  a  chief 
agent.  At  Rome  the  senate  conferred  the  vacant  dignity  on 
Gordian,  a  noble,  wealthy,  and  virtuous  senator,  and  on  hia 
son,  of  the  same  name,  a  valiant  and  spirited  youth.  But 
scarcely  were  they  recognized,  when  the  son  fell  in  an  en- 
gagement, and  the  father  slew  himself.  Maximin  was  now 
rapidly  marching  towards  Rome,  full  of  rage  and  fury.  De- 
spair gave  courage  to  the  senate;  they  nominated  Balbinus 
and  Pupienus,  one  to  direct  the  internal,  tlie  other  the  exter- 
nal affairs.  Maximin  had  advanced  as  far  as  Aquileia,  when 
his  horrible  cruelties  caused  an  insurrection  against  him,  and 
he  and  his  son,  an  amiable  youth,  were  murdered.  The  army 
was  not,  however,  willing  to  acquiesce  in  the  claim  of  the 
senate  to  appoint  an  emperor.  Civil  war  was  on  the  point 
of  breaking  out,  when  the  conflicting  parties  agreed  in  the 
person  of  the  third  Gordian,  a  boy  of  but  thirteen  years  of  age. 

Gordian  III.  was  an  amiable  and  virtuous  youth.  In  affairs  23f 
■jf  state  he  was  chiefly  guided  by  liis  father-in-law,  Misitheus, 
who  induced  him  to  engage  in  war  against  the  Persians.  In 
the  war  Gordian  displayed  a  courage  worthy  of  any  of  his 
predecessors ;  but  he  shared  what  was  now  become  tlie  usual 
fate  of  a  Roman  emperor.  He  was  murdered  by  Philip,  the 
captain  of  his  guard. 

Philip,  an  Arabian  by  birth,  originally  a  captain  of  free-  2Ji 
looters,  seized  on  the  purple  of  his  murdered  sovereign.  Two 
rivals  arose  and  contended  with  him  for  the  prize,  but  accom- 
plished nothing.   A  third  competitor,  Decius,  the  commander 

*  See  p.  57. 


164  mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I. 

of  the  army  ot  the  Danube,  defeated  and  slew  him  nea? 
Verona.  During  the  reign  of  Pliilip,  Rome  attained  he» 
thousandth  year ;  and  the  games  to  commemorate  the  dura- 
tion of  the  city  of'Romuln?;,  Brutus,  and  Caesar,  were  cele- 
brated by  the  native  of  a  ountry  scarcely  known,  even  by 
name,  to  tlie  kings  and  con.  uls ! 

^  o       Decius,  a  prince  of  rigid  virtue  and  primitive  simplicity  jf 

249.  manners,  sought  to  restore  its  ancient  tone  to  the  Roman 
cliaracter;  but  the  time  for  reformation  was  long  gone  by;  a 
new  character  was  now  completely  and  fixedly  formed.  Tlio 
well-meant  projects  of  the  emperor  failed,  and  himself  fell  in 
battle,  in  defence  of  his  country  against  the  invading  Goths. 

251.      In  the  space  of  two  years  reigned  and  fell  four  emperors, 

253.  Gallus,  Volusian,  Hostilian,  son  of  Decius,  and  .^milian. 
The  Germans  still  pressed  on  Italy,  the  Persians  on  Syria. 

853.  Valerian  succeeded.  His  rigor  and  virtue  as  a  censor  had 
been  applauded ;  as  an  emperor,  he  showed  feebleness  and  in- 
capacity. He  associated  his  son  Gallienus  in  the  empire  with 
him.  In  the  war  against  Shahpoor  of  Persia  he  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner.  The  haughty  Persian  subjected  the  cap- 
tive emperor  to  every  indignity.  The  Roman  spirit  was 
gone;  he  submitted  with  patience,  and  his  luxurious  col- 
league revelled  heedless  of  his  father's  sufferings. 

2(50.  Gallienus,  devoted  to  sensual  indulgence,  lived  tranquilly 
in  Italy,  But  in  tlie  various  provinces,  Britain,  Gaul,  Spain 
Syria,  Africa,  &c.,  and  even  in  Italy,  numerous  claimants  of 
the  imperial  dignity  arose.  Some  of  these  were  men  of  merit, 
almost  all  persons  of  military  skill  and  valor.  Though  the 
empire  was  thus  torn  and  confused,  its  constant  enemies, 
the  Germans  and  Persians,  were  unable  to  seize  any  part 
This  is  usually  denominated  The  time  of  the  thirty  tyrants, 
though  (as  far  as  we  can  collect  from  coins)  they  did  not  ex- 
ceed twenty-one,  and  are  unjustly  designated  as  tyrants.  But 
some  fancied  analogy  to  Critias  and  his  colleagues  at  Athens 
presented  itself,  and  mankind  love  analogies  and  round  num- 
bers. None  of  these  rivals  gave  much  uneasiness  to  Gallie- 
nus, who  would  have  been  well  content  with  Italy  alone,  till 
Aureolus  threatened  to  deprive  him  even  of  that.  He  then 
marched  to  battle  against  him  at  Milan ;  but  ere  he  took  the 
city,  he  was  murdered,  naming,  with  his  last  breath,  the  most 
worthy  to  be  his  successor. 

-;5S  Claudius  was  tlie  most  worthy.  He  delivered  Italy  from 
the  Goths,  by  a  victory  such  as  Rome  had  not  seen  since  the 
days  of  Marius.  But  his  reign  was  of  short  duration,  and 
would  have  been  more  deeply  lamented  were  it  not  for  the 
virtues  and  talents  of  his  successor 


CHAP.  IX.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  167 

Aurelian,  a  man  bred  in  camps,  brought  to  the  throne  the  *•  » 
valor,  activity,  and  vigor  that  it  required.  He  introduced  or-  ^^ 
der  into  the  state,  and  restored  the  empire  to  internal  tran- 
quillity. He  defeated  the  Germans,  and  even  pursued  them 
intc  Iheir  forests,  vanquished  all  his  rivals,  and  among  them 
Zenobia,  or  Zeinab,  the  heroic  queen  of  Palmyra,  who,  in 
chains  of  gold,  adorned  the  triumph  in  which  the  emperor 
entered  Rome.  Aurelian  never  lost  a  battle :  he  was  clement 
ja  the  conquered,  indulgent  to  the  people  and  the  army,  but 
averse  to  the  senate.  He  was  murdered  on  his  way  against 
the  Persians. 

The  army  was  now  either  satisfied  with  the  long  exercise 
of  its  power  in  appointing  emperors,  or  it  saw  the  evils  likely 
»o  arise  to  the  empire  in  general  from  each  army  investing 
its  leader  with  the  purple.  Accordingly,  on  the  death  of 
Aurelian,  they  restored  its  privileges  to  the  senate,  who, 
after  an  interreign  of  eight  months,  bestowed  the  purple  on  275 
Tacitus,  a  man  of  virtue  and  probity.  Tacitus  was  far  ad- 
vanced in  years  when  he  was  placed  on  the  throne,  which  he 
occupied  for  a  few  months  with  honor,  and  then  died  a  natu- 
ral death. 

After  the  death  of  Tacitus,  his  brother  Florianus,  who  lit- 
tle resembled  him,  aspired  to  the  empire.  Neither  senate 
nor  army  approved  of  him,  and  the  latter  bestowed  tlie  pur- 
ple on  their  virtuous  and  able  commander,  Probus,  who,  to 
the  more  rigorous  virtues  of  Aurelian,  united  a  gentleness  ^"6 
and  moderation,  to  which  that  able  prince  had  been  a  stranger. 
The  senate  approved  of  the  choice  of  the  army.  Probus  de- 
feated the  Germans  on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine.  He  in- 
troduced into  tlieir  country  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  em- 
ployed tlie  legions  in  the  labors  of  the  field  and  the  vineyard. 
This,  united  with  the  strict  discipline  he  sought  to  revive, 
excited  their  indignation:  they  rose  in  munity,  murdered, 
and  then  lamented  their  excellent  emperor. 

Caras,  the  commander  of  the  body-guard,  was  raised  to  the  S82 
empire,  in  which  he  associated  with  himself  his  two  sons, 
Carinus  and  Nuinerian,  the  former  of  a  dissolute,  the  latter 
of  a  more  gentle  and  cultured  disposition.  Cams  was  es- 
teemed a  good  general,  but  his  reign  was  short ;  he  was  killed 
by  lightning  in  his  tent,  or  possibly  murdered  by  those  who 
spread  that  report.  His  son  Numerian  was  shortly  afterwards 
murdered  by  his  father-in-law  Aper,  the  praetorian  prefect. 
The  traitor  expiated  his  crime  by  death.  Carinus  was  slain 
by  a  man  whose  conjugal  honor  he  had  insulted. 


168  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  I 

Change  in  the  Form  of  Government. 
2m'     After  the  death  of  Carus  and  his  sons,  the  reigns  of  empire 
'  fell  into  the  firm  hands  of  Diocletian,  by  birth  a  Dalmatian,  a 
wise  and  able  prince.     The  enemies  of  the  empire  pressed 
now  with  redoubled  force  on  the  frontiers,  and  Diocletian 
saw  that  the  vigilance  and  activity  of  one  mind  could  not 
suffice  to  attend  to  the  multifarious  concerns  of  the  state. 
The  events  of  the  last  reigns  had  also  taught  him  the  danger 
of  committmg  the  command  of  the  legions  to  ofiicers  who 
might  so  readily  become  competitors  for  the  throne.     He 
therefore  resolved  to  share  the  imperial  dignity  with  his 
friend  and  comrade  in  arms,  Maximianus  Herculius,  to  whom, 
as  being  of  a  rugged  active  character,  he  committed  the 
West,  while  hunself  took  charge  of  the  East.     Each  bore  the 
tit-e  of  Augustus,  and  each  appointed  a  successor  under  that 
of  Csesar.     The  Caesars  were  younger  and  more  active  men, 
and  the  more  exposed  parts  of  the  empire  were  committed  to 
them.     Diocletian  administered  Asia;  his  Casar,  Galerius, 
rough  and  soldierly,  governed  Thrace  and  the  countries  on 
the  Danube.     Maximian  retamed  Italy,  Spain,  Africa,  and 
the  islands;  his  Csesar,  Constantius  Chlorus,  a  worthy  de- 
scendant of  the  late  emperor  Claudius,  governed  Gaul  and 
Britain.     Rome  ceased  to  be  an  imperial  residence :  that  of 
Maximian  was  mostly  at  Milan ;  Diocletian  resided  chiefly  at 
Nicomedia.     A  farther  innovation  made  by  this  emperor  was 
the  introduction  of  the  oriental  splendor  of  attire  and  adora- 
tion of  the  emperors.     He  and  his  colleague  with  great  so- 
lemnity assumed,  on  the  same  day,  the  diadem  and  other 
insignia  of  eastern  royalty. 

Perhaps  nothing  better  could  have  been  devised  for  main- 
tainmg  the  empire  than  this  partition  of  power.  The  expe- 
rienced monarchs  could  give  attention  to  internal  affairs, 
while  the  younger  and  more  active  emperors  elect,  away 
from  the  corruption  of  capitals,  might  keep  up  the  discipline 
and  military  virtues  of  the  legions.  Accordingly  we  find  that 
the  Goths  were  held  m  check,  the  AUemanni  defeated,  Brit- 
ain, where  Carausius  had  in  the  late  reign  raised  a  rebellion, 
reduced  to  obedience,  and  the  Persians  forced  to  a  peace  ad- 
vantageous and  honorable  to  the  empire.  But  it  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  four  princes  could  reign  together  in  una- 
nimity, or  that  Cffisars  would  patiently  wait  till  death  made 
way  for  them  to  the  higher  rank.  It  was  not  long,  therefore, 
before  contention  and  war  broke  out  among  them. 

While  Diocletian  ruled,  he  kept  his  colleagues  in  bounds, 
exerting  over  them  the  influence  of  a  superior  mind.     Bu 


OHAP.  IX.  ROME  AN  EMPIRE.  169 

after  a  reign  of  twenty  years,  feeling  the  infirmitiea  of  age 
approach,  he  resolved  to  abandon  the  cares  of  empire,  and 
retire  to  pass  the  evening  of  his  life  in  seclusion  in  his  native 
province.  He  signified  his  intention  to  Maximian,  who  re- 
luctantly assented  to  a  joint  abdication.  The  Caesars  were 
raised  to  the  rank  of  Augusti:  Constantius  was  assigned 
Severus  for  his  Caesar ;  Galerius  conferred  that  dignity  on 
his  nephew  Daza. 

Constantius  did  not  long  enjoy  the  dignity  he  adorned.  Ga-  a.  d 
leriua  soon  became  odious  to  the  Romans ;  and  Maximian  30*". 
took  advantage  of  this  circumstance  to  make  his  son  Maxen- 
tiXiB  master  of  Italy.     Severus  was  forced  to  yield.     In  the 
mean  time,  Constantine,  the  son  of  Constantius,  had  com- 

Sletely  won  the  hearts  of  the  British  and  Gallic  legions,  by 
ia  military  and  civil  virtues,  and  he  soon  forced  Galerius  and 
Muxentius  to  acknowledge  him  as  joint-emperor. 

The  debauchery  and  cruelty  of  Maxentius  were  now  grown 
intolerable  to  the  Romans.  The  nobles  fled  from  the  city ; 
the  labors  of  agriculture  were  neglected;  his  own  father  was 
forced  to  fly  from  him  and  take  refuge  with  Constantine,  who 
had  married  his  daughter.  But  the  restless  tmd  depraved 
old  man  could  not  abstain  from  machinations  against  his  son- 
in-law  and  protector ;  and  Constantine,  not  to  be  himself  the 
victim,  compelled  him  to  end  his  unquiet  life  by  voluntary 
deatli,  the  mode  of  which  was  left  to  his  own  choice.  Invited 
by  the  Roman  nobles,  Constantine  marched  against  Maxen-  312 
tius.  A  battle  took  place  in  the  neighborliood  of  Rome :  Max- 
entius fell,  and  the  whole  West  obeyed  Constantine. 

Galerius  was  now  dead,  and  his  nephew,  Maximianus  Daza, 
whom  he  had  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  Caesar,  had  follow- 
ed him.  Constantine  associated  with  himself  Licinius,  a 
man  who  by  military  merit  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of  a 
Csesar.  They  named  their  sons,  Crispus  and  Licinius,  to  be 
u-eir  Caesars.  The  old  emperor  Diocletian  died,  as  was  said, 
by  his  own  hand,  about  this  time. 

Constantine  now  openly  professed  himself  a  Christian.  He  311 
put  an  end  to  the  persecution  whicn  had  raged  against  that 
sect  for  the  last  ten  years  with  all  the  violence  of  the  ex- 
piring storm.  His  conversion,  perhaps,  was  sincere:  possibly  31i 
he  saw  that  the  Christians  were  become  the  most  powerfiil 
body  in  the  empire,  and  that  the  wisest  policy  was  to  give 
way  to  what  could  not  be  resisted  without  imminent  danger. 
He  issued  two  edicts;  one  assigning  them  the  temples  of  the 
gods,  in  places  where  they  had  not  suitable  churches;  iha 
other,  giving  them  the  preference  in  all  appointments  to  civil 
and  military  oflices;  and  thus,  in  less  than  three  centuriei 
15 


170  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1. 

from  its  origin,  Christianity  became,  in  effect,  the  established 
religion  of  the  empire.  Constantine,  however,  deferred  his 
baptism  till  a  little  before  his  death. 

Unanimity  did  not  long  subsist  between  the  emperors. 
Wars  broke  out,  and  Licinius  was  eventually  deprived  of  hia 
A.  D.  dignity  and  life  by  his  victorious  colleague,  who  now  reigned 
324.  alone.  Seeing  that  the  North-east,  where  the  powerful  nation 
of  the  Goths  was  settled,  was  the  quarter  from  whiclFmos! 
danger  was  to  be  apprehended,  and  also  the  growing  strength 
of  Persia,  Constantine  deemed  Rome  too  remote  a  residence 
330  for  the  sovereign,  and  he  fixed  on  Byzantium,  %vhich  he  en- 
larged and  named  from  himself,  as  the  seat  of  imperial 
power.  This  measure  has  been  blamed,  as  leaving  Italy  ex- 
posed to  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarians ;  but  continuance  at 
Rome,  or  any  other  plan  to  ward  off  the  inevitable  evil,  would 
have  been  equally  exposed  to  censure.  The  virtue  and  energy 
which  had  gained  the  empire  were  gone ;  the  tribes  of  the 
North  had  added  skill  and  discipline  to  their  numbers,  strength, 
and  courage. 

Corruption  of  Christianity. 

The  Christian  religion,  as  given  to  man  by  its  divine  Au- 
thor, was  perfect  in  truth  and  simplicity;  but  it  was  sent 
forth  into  a  world  in  which  error  abounded,  and  the  stream 
had  hardly  left  the  fountain  when  it  became  defiled  with 
mundane  impurities.  Earnestly  and  repeatedly  does  the 
zealous  Paul  inveigh  against  those  who  mingled  what  he 
called  the  "beggarly  elements"  and  the  "  fables"  of  Judaism 
with  the  spiritual  precepts  of  the  Gospel ;  and  strongly  does 
he  warn  to  avoid  "  profane  and  vain  babblings,  and  oppositions 
of  knowledge,  falsely  so  called."  But  the  evil  was  not  to 
be  checked,  and  Oriental  and  Grecian  philosophy  rapidly 
mingled  with  Gospel  simplicity. 

The  heat  of  eastern  climates  inspires  indolence  and  thu 
love  of  contemplation.  The  human  mind  becomes  absorbed 
in  rapturous  visions  of  light  and  expanse,  and  men  learn  to 
regard  the  soul,  the  commencement  of  whose  existence  they 
cannot  conceive,  as  having  descended  from  the  realms  of  su- 
pernal light  into  the  body,  its  present  darksome  dungeon, 
whence  it  was  to  reascend  to  its  former  blissful  abode.  Hence 
the  body  being  a  prison,  and  matter  evil,  the  object  of  the 
soul  was  to  emajicipate  itself  from  their  influence.  This 
was  to  be  best  effected,  it  was  thought,  by  mortification  of 
the  flesh  and  senses ;  and  hence  the  voluntary  mutilations, 
the  corporeal  tortures,  rigid  abstinence,  and  all  that  system 
of  self-torment  which  distinguiches  the  yogee,  the  ftkeer,  and 


Tbyatira^  Aaia  Minor* 


JOHN    GUTENBERG, 


CHAP  IX.  fiOME  AN  EMPIRE.  173 

the  monk.  Others,  but  fewer  in  number,  d  rew  a  contrary 
conclusion,  and  maintained  that  the  acts  of  its  impure  com- 
panion were  indifferent  to  the  pure  soul ;  and  they  freely  in- 
dulged in  the  practice  of  the  grossest  sensuality. 

This  eastern  doctrine,  mixed  with  the  Persian  one  of  the 
two  principles,  entered,  under  tije  name  of  Gnosis,  or  know- 
ledge, into  Christianity,  even  in  the  days  of  the  apostles;  and 
it  was,  perhaps,  already  not  unknown  to  the  Essenes.  All 
the  heiesiea  of  which  we  read  in  the  early  days  of  the  church 
were  founded,  more  or  less,  on  the  Gnosis ;  and  one  of  the 
favorite  doctrines  of  these  sects  was,  that  this  world  and  its 
creator  were  evil,  and  that  Jesus  was  a  being  produced  by 
wisdom,  who  took  the  appearance  of  a  body,  in  which  he  was 
apparently  crucified  by  the  agents  of  the  creator  of  the  world. 

With  this  knowledge  of  the  East  the  fhilosophy  of  the 
West  combined  to  debase  the  truth  of  the  Gospel.  This  phi- 
losophy was  the  New  Platonism,  which  had  fixed  its  chief 
seat  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  a  country  ever  fertile  of  error 
and  corruption.  Its  followers  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
old  religion ;  they  allegorized  all  its  uidecent  and  extravagant 
legends,  and  set  it  in  opposition  to  the  new  faith.  Some  of 
these  philosophers  became  Christians,  and  retained  their  love 
of  mystery  and  word-straining  artifices:  some  Christians 
were  educated  in  their  schools.  The  Jews  of  Egypt  had,  as 
the  works  of  Philo  sliow,  long  since  been  familiar  with  the 
allegorizing  system,  which  was  now  unsparingly  applied  to 
the  simple  precepts  and  narrations  of  the  Old  Testament: 
and  the  sober  Christian  of  the  present  day  would  stare  with 
amazement  at  the  numerous  and  marvellous  senses  they  were 
made  to  bear  in  the  writings  of  the  learned  Origen.  By  this 
system  any  words  could  be  made  to  bear  any  sense;  and 
what  a  field  for  corruption  this  gave,  is  too  evident  to  need 
proof  Yet,  as  evil  has  always  its  attendant  good,  this  very 
corruption  of  Christianity  may  have  aided  its  diffusion,  by 
procuring  it  a  more  ready  acceptance  among  tlie  educated 
classes  of  society,  whose  taste  had  long  lost  all  relish  for 
truth  and  simplicity. 

A  veneration  for  departed  excellence  is  one  of  the  most 
natural  and  praiseworthy  principles  of  our  nature ;  hence  no 
one  can  blame  the  early  Christians  for  visiting  with  respect 
the  tombs  of  those  who  died  beneath  heathen  tortures  rather 
than  renounce  their  faith.  But,  gradually,  simple  respect 
was  converted  into  religious  adoration;  the  bodies  and  relics 
of  the  martyrs  and  confessors  were  taken  from  their  peaceful 
and  ODa'Ture  places  of  rest,  and  solemnly  enshrined  in  stately 
churches,  where,  by  the  devout,  they  were  viewed  with  aw 
15* 


174  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

fill  veneration,  and  to  whose  sanctity  they  were  held  largely 
to  contribute. 

If  such  honors  were  paid  to  the  mortal  remains  of  the 
champions  for  Christ,  of  how  much  greater  were  they  them- 
selves to  be  held  worthy!  It  soon  became  an  established  ar- 
ticle of  faith,  that  the  apostles  and  other  eminent  saints  were 
at  once  admitted  to  the  beatific  vision  and  immediate  presence 
of  God,  where  they  enjoyed  an  extent  of  knowledge  and  a 
measure  of  power  to  which  limits  could  not  easily  be  set. 
The  transition  was  easy  to  an  invocation  of  them,  to  exert 
their  own  power  for  their  suppliant,  or  intercede  with  God 
in  his  favor;  and  the  icorship  of  saints  was  speedily  dissemi- 
nated through  the  Christian  world.  The  bodies  which  the 
saints  had  occupied  when  on  earth  were  supposed  to  retain 
or  to  have  acquired  a  portion  of  this  power :  they  too  were 
adored ;  and,  shortly  after,  this  honor  was  extended  to  their 
images.  Each  saint  was  held  to  be  most  easily  propitiated  at 
the  place  where  his  relics  lay,  or  his  life  had  been  spent,  and 
hence  the  origin  of  pilgrimages. 

In  effect,  the  theory  devised  by  Euhemerus,  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  Grecian  polytheism,  was  exactly  applicable  to 
a  great  part  of  the  religion  now  called  Christianity ;  and  we 
shall  have  completed  the  picture  when  we  add  the  number 
of  pretended  miracles  that  were  every  day  asserted  with  the 
most  unblushing  assurance,  and  the  quantity  of  Jewish  and 
heathen  ceremonies  that  was  rapidly  mtroduced  into  the 
church. 

This  is  the  religion  which  will  appear  in  the  next  twelve 
centuries  of  our  history,  and  to  which  our  future  remarks 
will  apply.  We  must,  however,  in  justice  add,  that  the  tor- 
rent of  corruption  was  nobly  stemmed  by  some,  such  as 
Vigilantius ;  that  many  of  the  corrupters  knew  not  what  they 
did ;  and  that  much  of  the  gold  still  remained  among  the 
dross. 


CHAP.  X. 

DKCLINE   OF   THE   EMPIRE. 

Successors  of  Constantine. 

337"      Constantine  TI.  obtained  Gaul  and  Britain :  Constans  Italy, 
lllyria,  and  Africa ;  Constantius  had  the  East.    Their  cousins, 
Dalmatius  and  Hannibalianus,  had  been  made  Caesars  by  their 
uncle :  the  former  governed  Thrace.  Macedonia,  and  Greece 
the  latter,  Armenia. 


CHAP.  X.  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  175 

The  Ctettirs  were  murdered  by  their  soldiers,  not  without 
the  approbttdon  of  the  emperors,  each  of  whom  thirsted  for 
absolute  sway.    Constantine  attempted  to  deprive  his  brother 
of  Italy,  and  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  against  him  near  Aqui-  x.  d 
ieia,     Constana,  a  prince  not  devoid  of  talent,  was  devoted  to  340 
and  passed  his  days  in  the  practice  of  unnatural  lusts.    Mag- 
nentius  conspired  against  him,  and  he  was  surprised  and  slain 
in  a  wood  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  whither  he  was  in  the  350 
habit  of  retiring  with  his  favorites.     Magnentius  attempted 
to  seize  his  dominions;  but  lUyria  refused  obedience,  and 
made  Vetranio,  an  old  and  worthy  officer,  emperor. 

Constantius,  committing  the  war  which  he  was  waging, 
witli  little  success,  against  Shahpoor,  king  of  Persia,  to  his 
cousin  Gallus,  whom  he  had  made  Caesar,  marched  to  the 
West.  Vetranio  cheerfully  resigned  his  dignity  for  an  annual 
pension.  Italy  declared  for  Constantius ;  and  Rome  suffered 
a  cruel  vengeance  from  Magnentius,  ere  he  marched  to  meet 
his  rival.  A  series  of  bloody  engagements  ensued.  On  the 
plains  of  Hungary  the  last  decisive  one  was  fought,  which  re- 
united the  empire  under  a  single  sceptre.  Magnentius,  to 
save  them  from  disgrace,  slew  his  own  mother,  and  one  of 
his  brothers,  and  then  himself;  and  his  example  was  followed 
by  his  brother  Decentius.  The  Cgesar  Gallus  was  executed  351 
shortly  afterwards  for  some  offences,  by  order  of  the  emperor. 

Julian,  the  brother  of  Gallus,  had  been  reared  up  at  the 
court  of  Constantius.  His  habits  were  studious,  his  senti- 
ments virtuous.  Disgusted  with  what  he  saw  around  him, 
lie  sought  relief  in  the  contemplation  of  the  noble  characters 
of  Greek  and  Roman  story,  whom  he  made  his  models.  He 
carried  his  veneration  for  his  loved  antiquity  so  far  as  to  re- 
nounce the  Christian  religion  in  which  he  had  been  reared, 
and  secretly  to  embrace  the  ancient  system  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  refined  by  the  allegorizing  subtilty  of  the  school  of 
the  New  Platonists ;  and  resolved  to  restore  it  to  its  former 
dignity,  if  ever  the  empire  should  fall  to  him. 

The  Franks  and  Allemanni  were  now  causing  extreme  un- 
easiness to  Gaul,  and  the  emperor  was  obliged  to  send  thither, 
with  the  rank  of  Csesar,  his  nephew,  whom  he  held  cheap  as 
a  book-learned  dreamer.  But  Julian  showed,  as  other  men 
of  mental  power  often  have  done,  that  study  and  learning 
disqualify  not  for  action.  He  arranged  the  most  judicious 
plan  for  conducting  the  war,  and  gave  the  Allemanni,  whose 
troops  under  their  chief  Chnodomar  were  three  times  the 
number  of  his  army,  a  most  decisive  defeat  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Strasburg.  He  marched  all  through  their  territory, 
-educed  them  and  the  Franks  to  sue  for  peace,  and  restored 


1^   D 


176  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

the  frontiers  of  the  empire.  He  diminished  the  burdens  of 
Gaul,  and  caused  justice  to  be  administered  with  speed  and 
impartiality.  His  army  saluted  him  Augustus ;  and  Constan- 
tius,  on  receiving  the  mteliigence  in  Cilicia,  died,  it  is  said, 
of  grief  and  mortification. 

Julian,  when  seated  on  the  throne,  openly  professed  the 
m'.  ancient  religion  of  the  empire.  The  temples  of  the  gods  were 
again  opened,  the  priests  restored  to  their  ancient  dignity, 
and  the  zealous  emperor  sought  to  purify  their  morals.  All 
practices  and  institutions  to  which  Christianity  appeared  tfl 
him  to  have  owed  its  success  were  engrafted  on  the  old  reli- 
gion :  preachers  were  placed  m  the  temples ;  excommunica- 
tion employed  agamst  obstinate  smners ;  large  sums  distributed 
m  alms  among  the  poor.  An  example  of  strict  and  rigid  mor- 
als was  set  by  the  emperor ;  the  utmost  moderation  prevailed 
in  the  palace;  the  eunuchs  and  other  mmisters  of  luxury 
were  removed.  Favor  in  the  distribution  of  employments 
was  naturally  shown  to  those  who  agreed  in  sentiment  with 
the  monarch ;  but  Julian,  though  superstitious,  was  too  politic, 
if  not  too  humane,  to  persecute  the  Christians.  Toleration 
prevailed ;  bishops  who  had  been  deposed  from  their  sees  were 
restored ;  the  cessation  of  mutual  persecution  for  opinion  en- 
joined ;  Arians  and  Athanasians— for  the  dispute  respectmg 
the  divine  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  had  split  the  church  mto 
these  parties— compelled  to  live  in  peace.  The  politic  em- 
peror hoped,  perhaps,  by  division  to  weaken  his  opponents. 

From  these  cares  Julian  was  called  away  to  the  defence  of 
the  eastern  frontier  against  Shahpoor,  who,  probably  aware 
of  the  growing  disaffection  of  the  Christians,  had  begun  to 
make  inroads.  Julian  marched  to  Mesopotamia,  where,  de- 
ceived by  a  pretended  deserter,  who  undertook  to  lead  him  by 
a  nearer  road,  he  got  into  the  deserts,  where  his  army  was 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  light  cavalry  of  the  enemy.  He 
resolved  on  giving  battle ;  but  just  as  he  was  preparmg  for 
action,  he  was  mortally  wounded,  and  he  died,  encouraging 
his  officers  to  do  their  duty. 
A  D  On  the  death  of  Julian,  the  army  invested  with  the  purple 
363  Jovian,  a  Pannonian,  a  man  of  talent,  and  so  zealous  a  Chris- 
tian, that  he  had  thereby  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  late 
emperor.  He  was  compelled  to  surrender  the  strong  fortress 
of  Nisibis  to  Shahpoor,  as  the  condition  of  peace.  Before  he 
reached  Constantinople,  he  died. 
864  The  army  chose  another  Pannonian,  Valentinian,  to  suc- 
ceed ;  and  he,  with  their  assent,  shared  the  dignity  with  hu 
brother  Valens,  to  whom  he  committed  the  care  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  emoire.  himself  taking  charge  of  the  West    Va- 


o 

a 

01 


a 
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0 


(D 
CD 


Q 


OilAP.  X.  DECLINE  OP  THE  EMPIRE.  179 

lentinian  was  a  valiant  prince ;  and  he  distinr;uislied  himself 
in  war  against  the  Saxons,  Allenianni,  and  Sarinalians,  and 
built  fortresses  along  the  Rhine.  Want  of  self-command  was 
his  great  defect.  Valens  was  of  a  less  noble  character,  and 
he  exercised  great  cruelty  against  those  who  set  up  claims  to 
his  empire,  or  differed  from  his  theological  sentiments. 

The  internal  corruption  and  weakness  of  the  empire  still 
increased ;  the  court  more  and  more  every  day  approximated 
to  the  idle  pomp,  the  secret  influence  of  women  and  eunuchs, 
the  inaccessibleness  of  the  monarch,  the  horrid  cruelty  which 
distinguished  those  of  tlie  East.  Barbarous  punishments,  such 
as  Rome  had  hardly  seen  under  the  worst  of  her  heathen 
monarchs,  were  inflicted  by  tliese  emperors.  The  discipline 
of  the  legions  continually  relaxed ;  their  armor  was  lightened, 
the  infantry  diminished,  and  cavalry  increased.  The  garrisons 
of  frontier  towns  took  to  civil  occupations.  The  best  of  the 
legions  were  composed  of  barbarians,  who  had  been  taken  into 
the  imperial  pay.  These  often  refused  to  fight  against  their 
own  countrymen :  often  betrayed  tlie  Romans ;  mocked  at  all 
discipl'.me,  roooea  and  plundered  the  country;  forced  tneir 
emperors  to  give  battle  when  it  pleased  them,  how  unfavora- 
ble soever  the  circumstances  might  be.  When  military  virtue 
was  lost,  all  was  gone,  for  civil  virtue  had  long  since  departed. 
The  view  given  by  contemporaries  of  the  then  state  of  the 
empire  is  heart-rending.  Corruption,  injustice,  and  oppres- 
sion, in  the  government  and  its  officers ;  swarms  of  barbarians 
continually  pouring  in  and  devastating  the  provinces;  and 
famine  and  pestilence  to  fill  up  the  picture  of  misery 

The  Huns. 

A  new  enemy  now  appearec  m  Europe.  Wars  and  com- 
motions in  the  distant  East  caused  a  tide  of  mingled  Turks 
and  Mongols  to  pour  itself  on  the  West.  In  the  reign  of 
Valens,  the  Romans  heard  of  tribes  of  Mongol  deformity,  be- 
gotten, some  reported,  by  the  devil,  who  in  countless  swarma 
pressed  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Goths.  This  dreadftii 
people  was  named  the  Huns. 

All  the  country  from  the  Black  Sea  to  Livonia  was  then 
ruled  by  the  venerable  Hermanric,  chief  of  the  Goths.  He 
was  shortly  afterwards  murdered.  The  Goths  were  divided 
into  two  great  portions,  the  West-Goths  (Visigoths,)  governed 
by  the  house  of  t!.e  Balti :  the  East-Goths  (Ostrogoths,)  by 
that  of  the  Amali.  The  Huns  rarely  venturing  to  meet  the 
West-Goths  in  battle,  continually  carried  off  their  wives  and 
children.  In  the  confusion  that  ensued  on  tiie  death  of  Her- 
jnanric,  and  the  invRsiors  of  tiie  Huns,   the  West-Gotliic 


180  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  L 

princes,  Alavi\ais  and  Fridigern,  proposed  to  the  emperor  Va- 
lens,  that  if  he  would  give  their  nation  lands  south  of  the 
Danube,  they  would  undertake  the  defence  of  that  frontier 
Valens  consented ;  he  gave  the  lands,  and,  through  Ulphilas, 
had  them  instructed  in  the  Arian  form  of  Christianity.  During 
a  period  of  fifty  years  the  Huns  pastured  their  herds,  and  pur- 
sued the  chase,  in  the  woods  and  plains  of  Russia,  Poland, 
and  Hungary,  without  molesting  the  West-Goths.  The 
East-Goths  were  among  their  subjects ;  but  Safrach  and  Aleth 
led  a  portion  of  them  over  the  Danube. 

Wars  with  the  Goths. 

The  Goths  soon  found  themselves  straitened  for  room  in 
their  new  abode.  They  applied  to  the  emperor  for  permission 
to  trade.  He  gave  orders  to  the  neighboring  governors  to 
conduct  it,  which  they  did  in  such  a  spirit  of  monopoly,  that 
the  Goths  had  soon  sold  their  cattle  and  slaves,  and  were  re- 
duced to  part  with  their  children  for  food.  The  governors 
attempted  treachery  against  Fridigern,  the  Gothic  prince ;  he 
summoned  his  countrymen  to  arms ;  blood  and  devastation 
tracked  the  march  of  the  Goths  from  Mcesia  towards  Con- 
stantinople. The  orthodox  emperor  of  the  West  refused  aid 
to  the  Arian  Valens ;  Terentius,  governor  of  Armenia,  did 
the  same ;  the  imperial  general,  Trajan,  was  defeated ;  the 
populace  despaired  of  victory  under  an  emperor  who  weis  the 
enemy  of  the  Son  of  God.  Meantime  the  Goths  advanced ; 
the  flames  of  the  villages  were  seen  from  the  walls  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

Valens  marched  and  encountered  the  Goths  in  the  plains 
of  Adrianople.  Cavalry  now  composed  the  main  strength  of 
the  Roman  armies.  They  could  not  stand  against  the  firm 
Gothic  infantry ;  the  imperial  troops  gave  way  and  fled.  Va- 
lens, wounded,  sought  refuge  in  a  peasant's  cottage,  which 

4  D.  was  set  fire  to,  along  with  the  rest,  by  the  pursuing  Goths, 

37*3  and  the  emperor  perished  in  the  flames. 

The  Goths  approached  the  walls  of  Constantmople,  and 
the  empress  Domnina  prepared  for  a  vigorous  defence.  Un- 
used to  sieges,  and  daunted  by  the  strength  of  the  walls,  they 
retired.  Fridigern  marched  into  Greece.  Safrach  and  Aleth 
turned  bacK  to  ravag-e  Pannonia. 

375.  Valentinian  was  dead,  and  his  sons,  Gratian  and  Valentin- 
ian  n.,  a  child  of  four  years,  had  succeeded  him.  Gratian 
associated  in  the  empire  Theodosius,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  a 
descendant  of  Trajan,  whose  virtues  he  emulated.    The  East 

379.  was  committed  to  the  new  emperor.  His  first  efforts  were  to 
excite  discord  among  the  Goths,  and  to  gain  them  over  U 


CHAP.  X.  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  181 

himeelf,  Fridigem  shortly  after  died,  and  the  emperor  pro- 
post^i  a  conference  with  his  successor  Athanaric:  a  peace 
was  agreed  on,  a  regular  subsidy  assigned  the  Goths,  and  a 
num()er  of  them  taken  into  pay  as  auxiliaries.  The  Gothic 
chief  died  at  Constantinople ;  and  i*uch  was  the  idea  the  (Jotha 
had  conceived  of  the  talents  and  virtues  of  the  emperor,  that 
they  declared  that  so  long  as  he  lived  they  would  not  appoint 
another  prmce. 

Gratianus  was  an  able  and  enlightened  prince :  he  fought 
with  valor  and  success  against  the  Allemanni ;  but  his  army 
disliked  him,  because  he  gave  a  preference  to  foreign  troops. 
They  set  up  Maximus  against  him,  and  Gratian  was  treache-  a.  d 
rously  murdered.  383 

Maximus  drove  the  young  Valentinian  out  of  Italy.  He 
secured  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  and  posted  himself  with  a 
large  army  near  Aquileia ;  but  Theodosius  took  advantage  of 
his  neglect,  and  defeated  him.     Maximus  fell  in  the  action.     388 

The  two  emperors  now  reigned  undisturbed,  till  Valen- 
tinian was  murdered  by  the  Count  Arbogastes  and  the  secre- 
tary Eugenius.  Theodosius  speedily  came  to  avenge  him, 
and  defeated  his  murdereifs  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  394 

A  few  months  after  he  had  obtained  the  sole  power,  Theo-  395. 
dosius  died,  to  the  great  misfortune  and  grief  of  the  empire, 
which  he  had  governed  with  justice,  moderation,  and  pru- 
dence.    He  was  the  last  who  ruled  over  the  whole  Roman 
world. 

Theodosius  had  two  sons :  Arcadius,  the  elder,  a  youth  of 
eighteen,  was  left  the  East ;  and  Rufinus,  a  native  of  Gaul, 
became  his  director :  Honorius,  a  boy  of  eleven  years,  held 
the  West,  under  the  guardianship  of  Stilicho,  a  Vandal 
These  ministers,  for  private  ends,  introduced  confusion  into 
the  empire. 

The  Goths,  on  the  death  of  Theodosius,  had  appointed 
Alaric,  of  the  house  of  the  Balti,  their  prince.  Finding  their 
aubsidy  Ul  paid,  and  perceiving  that  the  justice  and  valor  of 
Theodosius  no  longer  swayed  the  sceptre,  they  meditated  war. 
Rufinus  deemed  it  a  great  stroke  of  policy  to  throw  the  evil 
on  Italy.  He  secretly  advised  the  Goths  to  turn  their  arms 
that  way,  promising  to  send  no  aid  to  that  country.  Stilicho, 
on  the  other  hand,  rejoiced  at  the  prospect  of  war ;  he  took 
no  pains  to  secure  the  passes  against  Alaric,  and  a  Gothic 
prince  was  surrounded  and  slain  in  the  mountains  near  Fie- 
sole. 

The  nation  of  the  West-Groths,  with  wives  and  children,  403 
flocks  and  herds,  broke  up  from  their  seats  in  Mccsia  and 
Ilither-Dacia,  and  advanced  through  Illyrium,  Istria,  and  the 
16 


182  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  I. 

north-east  of  Italy,  without  meeting  any  opposition.  They 
arrived  within  a  few  miles  of  Milan,  at  tliat  time  tlie  impe- 
rial residence,  and  sent  a  message  to  inform  the  emperor  that 
the  West-Gothic  nation  was  arrived  in  Italy,  and  prayed  him 
either  to  assign  them  land,  or  to  try  the  strength  of  the  two 
nations  in  the  field.  Honorius  replied,  that  they  might  take 
land  in  either  Gaul  or  Spain.  Alaric  accepted  the  permission, 
though  in  the  one  country  he  might  have  to  contend  with  the 
Franks,  in  the  other  with  the  Vandals  and  Suevians.  With- 
out committing  any  act  of  violence,  he  marched  towards  the 
Alps  leading  into  Gaul,  and  the  Goths  celebrated  Easter  in 
the  mountains  of  Piedmont.  In  the  midst  of  the  festival,  they 
were  astonished  to  see  that  they  were  followed  by  a  Roman 
army.  The  Goths  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the  assail- 
ants, and  Alaric,  filled  with  rage,  turned  back  on  Italy. 

He  ravaged  Liguria  and  all  the  country  to  Tuscany,  and 
hastened  towards  Rome.  Her  fate  was  averted  for  a  season ; 
but  on  the  26th  August,  of  the  year  1164  from  the  supposed 
era  of  her  foundation,  Rome  surrendered  for  the  first  time  to 

4  R  a  foreign  e^emy,  and  saw  herself  at  the  mercy  of  Alaric. 

V)9.  The  imperial  palace  and  the  houses  of  the  great  were  plun- 
dered ;  much  blood  was  spilt,  and  many  houses  fired.  He 
bestowed  the  purple  on  one  Attalus,  then  stripped  him  of  it, 
marched  southwards,  and  subdued  Campania  and  Calabria,  as 
far  as  the  strait.  He  was  meditating,  it  is  said,  a  passage  to 
Sicily  and  Africa,  and  the  conquest  of  that  country,  when 
death  surprised  him  at  Cosenzo  in  his  35th  year.  The  whole 
West-Gothic  nation  mourned  for  him,  and  the  neighboring 
river  was  diverted  from  its  course  to  aflbrd  a  grave  for  the 
Gothic  monarch  in  its  bed,  and  then  turned  back  to  its  usual 
channel,  that  tlie  tomb  of  Alaric  might  never  be  discovered. 
His  brother-in-law,  Adolf,  (Athaulf)  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him. 

Adolf  marched  back  to  Rome,  where  his  troops  did  great 
injury  to  the  public  buildings  and  works  of  art  The  empe- 
ror was  forced  to  give  him  his  sister  in  marriage.  He  con- 
tinued his  march  to  Gaul.     All  opposition  gave  way  before 

410  Gothic  valor.  The  country  bounded  by  the  Rhone,  Loire,  and 
Pyrenees,  submitted  to  the  West-Goths,  and  Toloza  (Toulouse) 
became  their  capital.  They  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  drove 
the  Vandals,  Suevians,  and  the  Slavonian  Alans  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Gallicia  and  Portugal.  The  Spaniards  retamed  their 
ancient  valor ;  but  the  government  of  the  empire  was  not  so 
beneficial  as  to  deserve  to  be  defended.  This  kingdom  of  the 
West-Goths  in  Spam  lasted  till  the  year  711. 

The  Caledonians  meantime  pressed  upon  Britain ;  Phara- 
mond  (Warmund)  and  his  Franks  had  settled  in  the  Nether 


o 

< 

o 

■0 


OHAP.  X.  DECLINE  OP  THE  EMPIRE.  185 

lands ;  Gundicher  (Gunther)  and  his  Burc^ndians,  seized  the 
countxy  on  the  Upper  Rhine.  His  capital  was  Worms.  Heru.i 
and  Rugians  came  down  into  Noricum  (Austria;)  the  Lanoro- 
bards  took  Pannonia  (Hungary  and  a  part  of  Austria ;)  the 
East-Goths,  a  part  of  Thrace.  Sebastian  and  Jovinus  raised 
the  standard  of  rebellion  in  the  empire.  Heraclianus,  gov- 
ernor of  Africa,  kept  back  the  corn-ships  destined  for  Rome. 
In  this  state  of  the  public  affairs  Honorius  died,  leaving  the  ^^  ^ 
throne  of  the  West  to  his  nephew  Valentinian,  a  child  of  six  42a 
years  of  age. 

Genseric  and  Attila. 

In  the  reign  of  Valentinian  III.  Africa  was  lost  to  the 
western  empire;  the  cause  was  the  ambition  and  art  of 
^tius,  the  imperial  general.  Galla  Placidia,  the  mother  of 
the  young  emperor,  governed  for  him  witli  wisdom.  Boni- 
facius  was  governor  of  Africa.  ^Etius  wished  to  cause  en- 
mity between  him  and  the  regent.  He  wrote  to  Bonifacius, 
telling  him  he  had  been  traduced  to  her,  and  that  she  would  re- 
call him  and  put  him  to  death ;  he  represented  to  Placidia  that 
Bonifacius  was  meditating  rebellion,  and  that  the  only  way 
to  check  was  to  recall  him :  she  did  so;  ho  refused  obedience : 
it  was  resolved  to  make  war  on  him.  Bonifacius,  diffident  of 
his  own  resources,  cast  his  eyes  on  the  Vandals,  now  masters 
of  Andalusia  :  he  offered  land  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  as  the 
price  of  their  assistance,  to  their  princes  Genseric  and  Gon- 
deric.  Genseric,  an  able,  enterprising,  and  ambitious  youth, 
immediately  crossed  the  strait.  Terror  and  devastition  tracked  421 
his  route.  B^jnifacius  perceived  his  error :  aided  by  some  forces 
sent  by  Theodosius  II.  emperor  of  the  East,  he  armed  in  de- 
fence of  the  country.  Genseric  defeated  both  him  and  the  im- 
perial general  Aspar.  He  took  Carthage,  plundered  it,  de- 
stroyed the  nobility,  and  tortured  all  ranks  to  make  them 
discover  their  treasures.  Being  an  Arian,  he  relentlessly 
nersccuted  the  orthodox. 

His  son  Hunneric  was  married  to  a  West-Gothic  princess. 
As  Genseric  grew  old,  he  became  suspicious:  he  took  it  into 
nis  head  that  his  daugliter-in-law  meditated  poisoning  him, 
and  he  cut  off  her  nose  and  ears,  and  sent  her  home  to  her 
own  country.  Then,  fearing  the  vengeance  of  the  West- 
Goths,  and  a  union  between  them  and  the  Roman  emperor 
igainst  him,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  Attila,  king  of  tlie  Huns, 
to  induce  him  to  invade  the  western  empire. 

The  whole  nation  of  the  Huns  was  united  under  this  noie 

Erince.     He   ruled   from   the  Volga  to   Hungary;   Gepida*. 
jangobards,  East-Goths,  and   nations  of  southern  Gerin;iny 
obeyed    him ;    the   emperor  Theodosius   paid   him   tribute 

16 


186  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  t 

700,000  warriors  marched  beneath  his  banners,  each  Hiinxiish 
tribe  under  its  chief.  One  soul  animated  the  whole;  all 
yielded  implicit  obedience  to  the  *  mandate  of  their  great 
Tanjoo.     Attila  was  generous,  and  not  averse  from  mercy. 

Attila  resolved  on  w^ar.  He  prepared  the  way  by  artifice; 
he  wrote  to  Theoderic  (Dietrich,)  the  West-Gothic  king  re- 
siding at  Toulouse,  inviting  him  to  unite  in  a  partition  of  the 
empire  of  the  Romans,  his  sworn  foes.  He  wrote  to  the  im- 
perial court,  exaggeratmg  the  fidelity  of  the  Huns,  and  pro- 
posing to  restore  the  integrity  of  the  empire  by  a  union  of 
their  forces  to  expel  the  West-Goths  from  Gaul  and  Spain. 
The  imperial  court  saw  through  the  artifice.  Valentinian 
called  on  all  the  barbaric  monarchs  of  the  West  to  join  in 
averting  the  common  danger :  his  call  was  attended  to.  The 
valiant  West-Gothic  monarch,  the  Burgundians  who  dwelt  ia 
the  modern  Burgundy,  Dauphine,  Savoy,  and  West  Switzer- 
land, Sangiban,  king  of  the  Alans,  on  the  Loire,  the  towns 
of  Armorica,  the  community  of  Paris,  the  Ripuarian  Franks 
between  the  Maese  and  Rhine,  the  Salian  Franks  ruled  by 
Meroveus,  and  the  Saxons  beyond  the  Rhine,  all  took  arms 
to  repel  the  Huns. 

From  his  village-court  on  the  banks  of  the  Theiss,  Attila 
pursued  his  march  through  Austria,  Styria,  the  borders  of 
Rhsetia  and  Allemannia,  passed  the  Rhine,  defeated  at  Basil 
the  king  of  the  Burgundians,  rapidly  advancing,  till  on  the 
Marne  in  the  plains  of  Croisette,  not  far  from  Chalons,  he  en- 
countered the  army  of  the  confederates. 
\.  D  The  left  wing  of  the  confederates  was  commanded  by 
450.  iEtius,  the  Roman  general,  the  right  by  Theoderic,  the  centre 
by  king  Sangiban.  One  wing  of  the  army  of  AttUa  was  led 
by  the  king  of  the  Gepidas,  the  other  by  the  princes  of  the 
East-Goths.  Attila  ordered  the  principal  efforts  to  be  directed 
against  the  West-Goths  and  Alans,  and  desired  all  to  fix  their 
eyes  on  him.  The  fight  was  long  and  bloody.  Theoderic 
fell,  encouraging  his  men.  At  the  approach  of  night,  Attila 
found  it  necessary  to  retreat.  The  West-Goths  burned  to 
avenge  the  death  of  their  king.  ^Etius  judged  it  more  politic 
to  reserve  the  Huns  as  a  counterpoise  to  them:  he  also 
wished  to  prolong  the  war,  and  his  own  command.  Attila,  as 
the  country  was  unable  to  support  his  troops,  returned  home. 
i52.  Vengeance,  or,  as  is  said,  the  invitation  of  a  sister  of  the 
ernperor,  who  offered  him  her  hand,  drew  Attila  to  Italy. 
Aquileia  resisted  in  vain :  it  was  levelled  to  the  ground ;  its 
male  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword,  the  women  and  children 
led  into  slavery.  All  the  towns  of  northern  Italy  were  taken 
and  plundered.  He  entered  Ravenna  through  a  breach  made 
by  the  citizens  m  tlieir  walls,  to  testify  their  submission.  Leo 


CHAP.  X.  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  .187 

the  venerable  bishop  of  Rome,  came  to  meet  him,  bearing 
gifts,  and  accompanied  by  nobles.  He  besought  him  to  spare 
the  city  where  the  apostle  had  preached,  and  which  Alaric 
had  not  violated.  Attila  was  moved  :  he  drew  off  his  army, 
laden  with  spoil,  to  pasture  their  herds  once  more  beyond  the 
Danube.  Dreaded  by  the  East  and  West,  Attila  died  soon  ^_  ^ 
oSter,  on  the  night  of  his  marriage  with  the  fair  Hildichunde,  453 
and  with  him  expired  the  power  of  the  Huns. 

Fall  of  the  Western  Empire. 

Valentinian  HI.  was  a  luxurious  and  superstitious  prince. 
He  had  violated  the  wife  of  Maximus,  a  noble  Roman.  Bent 
on  vengeance,  Maximus,  to  deprive  the  emperor  of  support, 
contrived  to  make  him  put  the  brave  ^tius  to  death.  This 
incensed  the  guards,  who.se  prefect  ^Etius  had  been,  and 
Valentinian  was  murdered  by  them.  Maximus  was  made  45S 
emperor,  and  he  married  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  his  predeces- 
sor. In  a  moment  of  unguarded  confidence  he  revealed  to 
her  the  secret  of  his  being  the  chief  agent  in  tlie  death  of 
Valentinian.  Eudoxia,  who  had  loved  the  husband  of  her 
youth,  resolved  to  avenge  him.  She  wrote  to  Africa  to  Gen- 
seric,  calling  upon  him  to  avenge  the  murder  of  him,  who 
had  so  many  years  left  him  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the 
fertile  regions  of  Africa.  Genseric  obeyed  the  summons. 
On  intelligence  of  his  approach,  all  the  principal  citizens  of 
Rome  fled  to  the  Sabine  and  Tuscan  mountains.  Maximus 
was  put  to  death  by  the  people.  No  resistance  was  offered 
to  the  Vandals.  Fourteen  days  they  abode  in  Rome,  which 
Leo,  its  bishop,  with  difficulty  saved  from  conflagration.  The 
empress  and  her  daughters,  the  flower  of  the  youth,  the 
artists  and  mechanics,  were  brought  to  Africa.  The  works 
of  art  were  embarked  for  the  same  place,  but  were  lost  on 
the  passage.  All  the  south  of  Italy  was  wasted  by  the 
Vandals. 

Avitus,  a  man  of  noble  descent  and  virtuous  life,  was  ele-  456 
vated   to  the   purple  in  Gaul,  but  almost  immediately  laid 
down  his  dignity.     The  Romans  then  chose  Majorianus,  a  45"; 
brave  warrior.     He  marched  against  the  Alans,  who  were 
threatening  a  descent  into  Italy,  but  was  murdered  by  his  own  46J 
soldiers.  His  successor  was  Severus.  The  Alans,  who  were  a 
tribe  of  Slavonian  race,  had  settled  on  the  Loire  in  Gaul. 
Finding  themselves  straitened  between  the  Franks  and  the 
West-Goths,  they  abandoned  that  country,  passed  the  Alps,  and 
reached  Bergamo.    Here  they  were  defeated  by  the  imperial 
general,  Richimir,  who  shortly  afterwards  deposed  the  em- 
peror, and  raised  his  own  father-in-law,  Anthemius,  to  the  467 


188  mSTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  1 

throne.     He  designed  to  govern  under  the  name  of  tlie  em 
peror.     Anthemius  was  refractory :  a  battle  was  fought  near 
Rome.   Richimir  was  victorious ;  he  put  Anthemius  to  death, 
wasted  and  plundered  the  city  in  a  dreadftil  manner,  and  sur- 
i.  D.  vived  but  forty  days.     Olybrius,  married  to  a  daughter  of 
4'73.  Valentinian,  was  raised  to  the  throne,  which  he  occupied  but 
seven  months.    Glycerins,  a  lord  of  the  court,  was  chosen  by 
the  Romans;  but  the  Eastern  emperor  set  up  Julius  Nepos 
474.  against  him,  and  Glycerins  retired  and  took  orders,  and  be- 
came bishop  of  Porto. 

The  emperor  sent  his  general,  Orestes,  to  defend  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Alps  against  the  barbarians,  who  were  continually 
advancing.  By  means  of  his  army  Orestes  forced  him  to  re- 
sign, and  he  invested  with  the  purple  his  own  son,  Romulus 

175.  Augustus,  a  youth  of  amiable  manners  and  cultivated  mind. 

The  Heruli,  a  people  whom  we  first  find  seated  in  Pome- 
rania,  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  had  gradually  proceeded 
southwards.  They  fed  their  herds  in  Pannonia,  then  roved 
into  Noricum,  and  now  appeared  in  Italy,  with  other  tribes, 
headed  by  the  valiant  Odoacer.  Pavia,  defended  by  the  father 
of  the  young  emperor,  resisted.  It  was  taken,  and  Orestes 
beheaded.  All  the  cities  opened  their  gates  at  the  approach 
of  Odoacer.  Romulus  laid  down  sceptre,  purple,  and  crown, 
and  entered  the  camp  of  the  Herulian  chief.  His  life  was 
spared,  and  he  was  sent  to  a  castle  in  Campania. 

176.  Thus,  in  the  days  of  a  prince  of  the  same  name  as  her 
supposed  founder,  in  the  1229th  year  of  the  city,  fell  the 
empire  of  Rome.  She  had  by  valor  and  prudence  risen  from 
the  smallest  beginnings ;  had  step  by  step  enlarged  her  do- 
minions, absorbed  one  after  another  all  the  nations  of  the 
civilized  world  that  surrounded  the  Mediterranean,  had 
adopted  their  vices,  had  lost  her  strength  by  internal  corrup- 
tion. The  mighty  colossus  had  long  tottered  on  it£  base ;  each 
tribe  of  the  Gotho-German  stock  had  by  turns  agitated  it : 
the  last  and  decisive  eiibrt  was  reserved  for  the  dwellers  of 
Riigen  and  Pomerania,  a  tribe  unheard  of  in  her  days  of 
glory. 

We  here  quit  the  ancient  world.  New  scenes  open,  new 
manners  appear ;  the  gods  of  Greece  and  Rome  have  vanish- 
ed :  a  different  religion  is  dominant,  before  which  anothet 
ancient  system  also  gives  way ;  while  the  wilds  of  Arabia 
send  forth  another  religion,  which,  in  its  rapidity  of  diffusion 
and  extent  of  dominion,  will  vie  with  that  which  emanated 
from  its  vicinity  six  centuries  before.  We  shall  meet  limitea 
monarchy  the  prevalent  form  of  government ;  view  the  amaz 
ing  fabric  of  ecclesiastical  dominion ;  and  contemplate  feu- 
dalism, with  its  chivalry  and  its  martial  spirit. 


OXBV ANTBS 


VraneiB  I. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD. 


PART  II. 

THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

CHAP.  I. 

■STA4LI8IIHENT    OF    THE    BARBARIAN'S    IN    THE    WESTZXW    EtfPniK 

Introduction. 

Hitherto  the  stream  of  history  has  run  m  one  nearly- 
continuous  channel,  varying  its  appellation  as  the  chief  power 
fell  into  the  hands  of  a  diflerent  people.  Assyrians,  Medes, 
and  Persians,  have  succeeded  each  other  in  the  possession 
of  Asiatic  empire.  Greece  has  risen  on  their  ruins ;  and  all 
have  been  finally  absorbed  in  the  wide  dominion  of  Rome. 
The  minor  streams  of  smaller  states  have  only  contributed 
to  swt '1  the  current  of  empire.  The  face  of  history  now 
alters;  the  last  great  empire  is  dissolved;  no  state  will  ap- 
pear of  such  magnitude  as  to  absorb  all  others ;  numerous 
states  will  run  a  parallel  course,  mutually  affecting  each 
other.  Our  plan  must  suit  itself  to  the  altered  condition  of 
tlie  world :  henceforth  we  shall  divide  the  course  of  events 
into  periods,  under  each  of  which  we  shall  view  the  then 
state  of  human  affairs. 

The  middle  ages  occupy  ten  centuries  of  the  history  of 
man.  Of  these,  tlie  six  first  are  justly  denominated  the  dark 
ages.  A  long  night  succeeded  to  the  brilliant  day  of  Rome 
whose  sun  had  set  in  blood  and  gloom.  In  the  four  last  cen- 
turies of  this  period,  it  will  brighten  more  and  more  into  tlie 
perfect  day  of  mooern  cultivation  and  refinement.  Religion 
will  purify,  law  will  resume  its  empire,  manners  will  soften 
literature  and  science  will  revive. 

The  Gotho- Germans. 

The  tribes  that  overturned  the  western  empire  were  all 
of  this  great  race,  which  overspread  nearly  all  tiie  northern 
part  of  Europe.  Their  original  seat  was  probably  ca.-^t  of  the 
Caspian.     The  affinity  between  their  languages  and  those  of 

191 


192  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11 

India  and  Persia  is  striking;  but  the  date  of  their  migration 
is  anterior  to  occidental  history.  They  were  distinguished 
by  their  huge  stature,  blue  eyes,  and  fair  complexions.  Their 
religious  system  was  a  deification  of  the  powers  of  nature ;  it 
still  subsists  in  the  Icelandic  Eddas. 

We  shall  now  give  a  concise  view  of  the  states  founded  by 
them  on  the  ruins  of  the  empire  of  Rome. 

East-  Goths  in  Italy. 

On  the  death  of  Attila,  the  East-Goths  threw  offthtir  sub- 
jection to  the  Huns.  Under  their  princes  of  the  house  of 
the  Amali,  they  dwelt  from  the  Danube  to  the  Save.  They 
received  gifts  from  the  Eastern  emperors ;  they  gave  hostages 
in  return.  Among  these  was  Theoderic  (Dietrich),  a  natural 
son  of  their  king  Theodemir,  a  youth  of  talent  and  hope. 
Theodemir  extended  his  conquests  to  the  Alps.  His  son  re- 
turned at  the  age  of  eighteen,  accomplished  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  Romans,  and,  unknown  to  his  father,  defeated  a  Sar- 
matian  prince.  The  Goths  now  extended  into  Illyria  and 
Macedonia,  and  Theoderic  succeeded  his  father.  The  em- 
peror Zeno,  a  weak  prince,  feared  the  ruler  of  the  Goths :  he 
invested  him  with  the  consular  robe,  and  allowed  him  to  tri- 
umph. But  the  Goths  still  felt  themselves  straitened ;  and 
Zeno  adopted  the  resolution  of  formally  bestowing  on  Tlieo- 
deric  Italy,  now  bowed  beneath  the  sceptre  of  the  king  of  the 
Heruli. 

The  Gothic  nation,  accompanied  by  their  families,  flocks, 
and  herds,  joyfully  set  forth  under  their  prince,  of  twenty- 
four  years  of  age,  to  take  possession  of  the  blooming  region 
issigned  them.  Twice  on  the  borders  of  Italy  were  the  sub- 
jects of  Odoacer  defeated.  The  Gothic  warriors  marched 
through  the  future  Venetian  territory.  Odoacer  fled  to 
Rome,  but  found  its  gates  closed  against  him.  He  shut  him- 
self up  in  Ravenna,  defended  by  its  morasses,  works,  and 
20,000  men.  In  the  third  year  of  the  siege,  Odoacer  was  mur- 
dered, and  the  city  surrendered.  Theoderic  forthwith  assum- 
193.  ed  the  Roman  purple. 

At  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with  every  demonstration 
of  honor,  he  sought  to  restore  every  thing  to  its  state  under 
the  emperors.  He  governed  with  justice :  though  an  Arian, 
he  persecuted  not  the  orthodox,  but  testified  all  becoming 
respect  for  their  bishopa  Though  so  illiterate  as  not  to 
write,  he  encouraged  learning :  his  chancellor  was  the  learn- 
ed Cassiodorus;  the  philosophic  Boetliius  was  one  of  his  min- 
isters. Allied  to  most  of  the  barbaric  princes,  he  was  a  father 
and  mediator  among  them.  His  wife  was  daughter  to  Childe- 


\     D 


t'HAP.  I.      BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  193 

bert,  king  of  the  Franks;  his  sister  was  married  to  Hunneric, 
king  of  the  Vandals ;  his  niece,  to  the  king  of  the  Thurin- 
gians;  his  daughters  to  the  monarchs  of  the  Burgundians 
and  West-Goths.  Theoderic  left  no  son.  When  he  felt  the 
approach  of  death,  he  summoned  his  nobles  and  officers,  com- 
mended to  them  his  daughter  Amalaswinde,  and  her  son 
Athalaric,  a  child  of  ten  years ;  advised  regard  to  order,  and  a.  a 
to  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome,  and  the  maintenance  of  ^26. 
peace  with  the  Eastern  empire. 

The  ambition  of  the  mother  of  Athalaric  induced  her  to 
associate  with  her  in  the  regency  her  cousin  Theudat.     Her 
son  died  of  disease,  and  her  ungrateful  colleague  deprived  534. 
her  of  life. 

Meantime  the  Vandal  kingdom  in  Africa  had  fallen  beneath 
the  arms  of  Belisarius,  the  able  general  of  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian, and  Gelimir,  its  last  sovereign,  had  been  led  in  triumph 
in  Constantinople.  Orders  were  now  "issued  to  Belisarius  to 
avenge  the  daughter  of  Theoderic.  Theudat  was  dethroned  536. 
by  the  Gothic  nation,  and  Vitig  seated  on  the  throne  of  the 
Amali.  Belisarius  denied  the  right  of  the  Goths  to  elect  a 
king  over  a  country  originally  Roman.  From  Sicily,  which 
had  already  submitted,  he  passed  over  to  Italy,  took  Naples, 
then  Rome,  which  he  fortified  ;  advanced  into  Tuscany,  and 
defeated  the  Gotlis  at  Perusia.  Milan  and  the  neighboring 
towns  rebelled  against  the  Arian  Goths ,  and  Vitig  called 
from  Burgundy,  now  under  the  Franks,  10,000  volunteers  538 
agfamst  them.  The  defence  of  Milan  was  lonof  and  obstinate: 
the  inhabitants  endured  the  extremities  of  famine;  but  at 
length  the  Frankish  arms  were  successful,  and  neither  age 
nor  sex  was  spared  in  the  carnage.  Vitig  lay  fourteen  months 
before  Rome,  which  was  relieved  by  Belisarius;  Ravenna 
was  taken,  and  Vitig  led  a  captive  to  Constantinople.  539 

The  Franks  fought  in  Italy  with  the  success  which  has 
always  attended  their  arms  in  that  country — victory,  then 
defeat.  The  Gotns  were  still  animated  by  their  usual  heroism: 
two  kings  were  elected  and  dethroned.     In  the  person  of  54(1 

Totila,  the  third  monarch,  the  fame  of  Theoderic  revived.  \^ 

Victory  attended  his  arms ;  he  took  the  towns,  and  levelled  "^ 

their  walls.  Belisarius  was  absent  quelling  an  insurrection 
in  Africa :  he  returned  to  see  Rome  taken  before  his  eyes. 
Her  fortifications  were  destroyed ;  her  inhabitants  of  all  ranks 
driven  from  their  homes,  that  she  might  never  again  be  able 
to  resist  the  Gothic  arms.  Master  of  Italy,  Totila  now  emu- 
lated the  mildness  of  Theoderic ;  he  recalled  her  population 
to  Rome,  and  lived  as  a  father  among  his  people. 

Court  intrigue  had  recalled  Belisarius;  the  conduct  of  the 
17 


194  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  U 

Italian  war  was  committed  to  the  valiant  eunuch  Narsei 
With  the  title  of  proconsul,  and  with  Langobardic  auxilia- 
i.  IX  ries,  he  entered  Italy.  The  Goths  were  defeated  near  Tajina, 
W2.  and  Totila  slain.  The  nobles  of  the  nation  raised  Teias  to 
the  throne  in  Pavia;  but  Nocera  soon  beheld  his  end,  and 
that  of  the  Gothic  dominion.  A  feeble  attempt  on  Italy  waa 
made  by  the  Allemanni,  now  subject  to  the  Franks. 

Under  the  admmistration  of  Narses,  Italy  enjoyed  abun- 
Jance,  tranquillity,  and  happiness.  Rome,  too,  gradually  rose 
again.  But  Narses  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor 
Justin  II.  He  left  Rome  and  retired  to  Naples,  whence  he 
568.  sent  letters  inviting  Alboin  (Albwin),  king  of  the  Lombards, 
to  the  invasion  of  Italy. 

The  Lombards  in  Italy. 

The  Longobards  or  Lombards  had  occupied  the  abandoneo 
seats  of  the  East-Goths  in  Pannonia.  Alboin  had  lately  con- 
quered the  Gepidse,  a  kindred  tribe,  drunk  from  the  skull  of 
their  king  Kunimund,  and  married  his  daughter,  Rosamund, 
when  he  received  the  invitation  of  Narses.  On  the  22d 
April,  568,  the  whole  nation  of  the  Lombards,  with  20,000 
Saxon  confederates,  abandoned  Pannonia.  On  a  lovely  morn- 
ing of  Spring,  they  with  rapture  first  beheld,  from  the  summit 
of  the  Alps,  the  magnificent  region  which  was  to  becomv? 
their  own.  Their  march  through  the  country  was  orderlj' 
and  peaceful ;  no  plunder  or  devastation  took  place  ;  nothing 
was  omitted  to  conciliate  the  affections  of  the  inhabitants 
Pavia  fell  before  their  arms,  and  became  their  capital.  In  a 
short  time  no  part  of  Italy  remained  to  the  empire  but  Ra- 
venna, Rome,  and  some  of  the  eastern  sea-coast.  This  prov- 
ince was  governed  by  exarchs  or  proconsuls.  The  authority 
of  the  emperors  gradually  diminished  in  Rome,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  popes,  of  whom  the  virtues  of  many  rendered 
them  worthy  of  the  authority  they  enjoyed ;  and  Rome  might 
justly  esteem  herself  happy,  when  directed  by  tlie  meekness, 
piety,  and  zeal  of  her  more  distinguished  pontiffs. 

The  Burgundians. 

Bordering  on  the  Lombards  were  the  Burgundians,  who 
possessed  the  ancient  country  of  the  Allobroges.  On  entering 
this  country  the  Burgundians  had  required  of  the  former  pos- 
sessors to  give  up  to  them  two-thirds  of  the  lands,  one-half  of 
the  woods,  houses,  and  gardens,  and  one-third  of  the  slaves. 
Agriculture  and  pasturage  were  the  occupati  ya.  of  the  free 
Burgundians ;  the  arts  were  exercised  by  the  servile  classes 
They  were  one  of  the  first  of  the  barbarian  nations  to  form  a 


CHAP.  I.        BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  195 

eode  of  laws ;  and  the  Burgundian  code  is  distinguished  from 
that  of  the  other  nations,  by  not  allowing  a  composition  for 
blood.  When  they  entered  Gaul,  they  had  themselves  in- 
structed, during  seven  days,  in  the  principles  of  Christianity ; 
on  the  eighth  &ey  were  baptized. 

The  princes  of  the  Burgundians  sought  and  obtained  from 
the  court  of  Constantinople  the  Patriciate  or  government  over 
the  original  inhabitants :  their  office  and  their  large  posses- 
sions assured  them  authority  over  their  own  countrymen.  A 
powerful  nobility  controlled  their  authority.  Gondebald,  one 
of  their  sovereigns,  attempted  to  raise  his  Roman  subjects  to 
an  equality  with  the  Burgundians,  to  diminish  their  influence; 
but  all  ranks  of  the  latter  assembled  at  Geneva,  and  forced 
him  to  abandon  his  project. 

To  secure  the  crown  to  his  son  Sigmund,  his  father,  Gon- 
debald, had  him,  during  his  own  lifetime,  elevated,  after  their  a.  u 
ancient  manner,  on  the  shields  of  the  Burgundians,  and  pro-  515 
cured  for  him  the  patriciate  from  the  emperor.  Sigmund  was 
married  to  the  daughter  of  the  great  Theoderic,  the  East- 
Goth.  After  her  death,  he  sacrificed  her  son  to  the  calumnies 
of  his  second  wife.  Theoderic  sent  troops  to  avenge  his 
grandson,  and  he  roused  the  sons  of  Clovis  (Chlodvig)  the 
Frank  to  gratify  the  vengeance  of  Clotilda,  their  mother, 
whose  father  had  been  put  to  death  by  his  brotlier  Gondebald, 
the  father  of  Sigmund.  The  Franks  entered  the  country : 
Sigmund  fled  to  a  convent  he  had  founded ;  he  was  taken 
and  slain.  His  brother  Gondemar  and  the  nation  carried  on 
the  struggle  during  ten  years.  At  last  Gondemar  was  over- 
come, and  the  race  of  Clovis  ruled  over  Burgundy.  The  534 
national  independence,  the  laws,  and  manners  stiU  remained. 

The  Allemanni. 

Northwards  of  the  Burgundians,  the  Allemanni  had  estab- 
lished themselves  along  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  from  its 
source  to  its  confluence  with  the  Moselle  and  Maine.  They 
neglected  the  arts  of  civil  life;  their  herds' occupied  and  sus- 
tained them :  they  loved  the  agitation  of  war,  and  their  rude 
policy  caused  them  to  demolish  the  walls  of  conquered  towns. 

Cologne,  the  territory  of  the  Ripuarian  Franks,  having  <96 
been  invaded  by  them,  Clovis,  the  Salian,  marched  to  the  aid 
of  his  allies.  He  met  the  Allemanni  near  Ziilpich.  A  long 
and  desperate  battle  ensued ;  victory  was  declaring  for  tne 
Allemanni,  when  Clovis,  still  a  heathen,  raised  his  hands  to 
heaven,  and  invoked  the  God  of  the  Christians.  His  Roman 
soldiers  were  stimulated  to  increased  exertion ;  they  threw 
themselves  impetuously  on  the  foe.    The  Allemanni  were 


196  mSTOBY  OF  THE  WORLD.         PART  H. 

broken,  their  king  waa  slain,  and  the  people  submitted  to  the 
rule  of  the  king  of  the  Franks. 

The  Franks. 

In  the  third  century,  the  warlike  association  of  the  Franks, 
seated  on  the  marshy  confines  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  began  to 
overrun  Gaul,     They  had  been  gradually  acquiring  a  firm 
footing  in  that  country.  They  were  divided  into  several  tribes, 
governed  by  different  chiefs  of  the  family  of  Meroveus.  Clovia 
(Chlodvig)  son  of  Chilperic,  succeeded,  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
to  the  command  of  the  Salian  tribe.     Ambitious  of  conquest, 
he  led  his  warriors  from  his  little  kingdom  of  the  Batavian 
island  into  Graul.     Numerous  auxiliaries  crowded  to  a  stand- 
ard which  held  forth  the  prospect  of  conquest  and  plunder. 
Clovis,  with  rigid  impartiality,  divided  the  booty  of  each  vic- 
i.  n  tory  among  his  followers ;  but  indiscriminate  plunder  was  se 
486   verely  prohibited  and  punished.   Syagrius,  who  ruled  as  king 
over  Soissons  and  the  neighboring  country,  and  whose  equity 
and  justice  had  gained  him  a  mild  and  beneficial  influence 
over  the  Burgundians  and  Franks,  was  the  first  potentate  at- 
tacked by  the  Frankish  chief     A  battle  decided  the  fate  of 
Syagrius,  who  fled  to  the  court  of  Toulouse,  where  his  life 
was  sacrificed  to  the  menaces  of  Clovis.     The  district  of 
Tongres  was  the  next  acquisition  of  Clovis,  made  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign.    The  battle  of  Ziilpich,  just  narrated,  gave 
him  the  sovereignty  over  the  AUemanni.     His  queen,  Clo- 
tilda, was  a  Burgundian  princess,  and  a  Christian :  her  en- 
treaties, the  victory  at  Ziilpich,  or  politic  views,  perhaps  a 
union  of  all  these  motives,  led  Clovis  to  yield  a  willing  ear 
to  the  arguments  of  the  Christian  bishops,  and  he  was  fol 
lowed  to  the  font  by  3000  of  his  warriors. 

The  form  of  Christianity  embraced  by  Clovis,  was  the  Cath* 
olic.  Nothing  could  have  been  more  advantageous  to  him, 
at  least  in  a  temporal  point  of  view.  The  West-Goth  and 
Burgundian  princes  were  Arians ;  and  though  they  treated 
their  Catholic  clergy  and  subjects  with  the  utmost  gentleness, 
the  latter  could  not  endure  patiently  the  dominion  of  here- 
tics. A  large  portion  of  their  subjects,  therefore,  looked  up 
to  the  orthodox  king  of  the  Franks,  and  were  ready  to  aid  his 
enterprises  against  their  Arian  sovereigns.  Alaric,  king  of 
the  West-Goths,  was  young ;  his  subjects  had  for  many  yeara 
enjoyed  the  luxury  of  peace ;  his  realms  were  fair  and  fruit- 
ful ;  he  and  his  Goths  were  Arian  sectaries.  In  an  assembly 
of  his  nobles  and  warriors  at  Paris,  now  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment, Clovis  expressed  his  grief,  that  the  fairest  part  of 
Gtiul  should  be  in  the  hands  of  Arians,  and  invited  his  war- 


EGBERT. 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


CANUTE. 


WILLIAM  I. 


WILLIAM  II, 


HENRY  I. 


CHAF.  L       BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  199 

riors  to  join  in  the  conquest  and  division  of  it.  Such  motives 
were  not  to  be  resisted ;  a  numerous  army  soon  took  the  field. 
Alaric  roused  his  Goths  to  arms :  his  troops  outnumbered  the 
Franks;  but  the  influence  and  the  arts  of  the  clergy  were 
with  Clovis.  Miracles,  it  was  even  said,  came  in  aid  of  the 
righteous  cause.  The  river  of  Vienne  was  swollen  ;  but  a 
white  hart  appeared  to  conduct  the  Catholic  army  to  a  ford. 
A  bright  meteor  hung  each  night  over  the  cathedral  of  Poi- 
tiers; and  its  flame,  like  the  pillar  in  the  wilderness,  served 
to  guide  the  true  believers  towards  the  station  of  the  infi- 
dels. Ten  miles  beyond  that  city  the  armies  encountered. 
Alaric  fell  by  the  hand  of  his  rival,  and  the  rout  of  the  Goths 
was  complete.  The  whole  of  Aquitain  was  conquered  and 
colonized  by  the  Franks,  and  the  Gothic  dominions  in  Gaul 
reduced  to  the  province  of  Septimania,  a  strip  extending 
along  the  Mediterranean.  The  emperor  of  the  East  conferred 
on  Clovis  the  dignity  of  consul  and  patrician;  titles  of  no  in- 
trinsic value,  but  which  gave  him  estimation  in  the  eyes  of 
flis  Gallic  subjects.  4.  ^ 

On  the  death  of  Clovis,  his  extensive  dominions  were  di-  511 
tided  among  his  four  sons.  Thierry  (Dietrich)  had  Austrasia, 
the  eastern  portion,  embracing  a  great  part  of  western  Ger- 
many :  his  capital  was  Metz.  Clodomir  resided  at  Orleans ; 
Childibert,  at  Paris;  Clotaire,  at  Soissons.  These  princes 
-'educed  Burgundy,  in  the  conquest  of  which  Clodomir  fell. 
The  dominions  of  Clovis  had  again  a  single  master,  in  the 
person  of  Clotaire,  his  youngest  son  by  Clotilda.  The  valor  558 
of  Thierry,  the  eldest,  had  added  Thuringia  to  his  domin- 
ions. The  empire  was  again  divided,  and  again  reunited,  in 
the  person  of  another  Clotaire,  great-grandson  of  Clovis.  His 
eon,  Dagobert  I.,  was  an  able  prince;  but  after  him  the  sove-  613 
reigns  of  the  Merovingian  house  became  utterly  insignificant. 
Their  dominions  were  divided  into  two  portions,  Austrasia 
and  Neustria ;  the  latter  containing  the  former  kingdoms  of 
Paris,  Orleans,  and  Soissons.  Burgundy  was  dependent  en 
Neustria;  but  Aquitain  was  separated  from  the  time  of  Dago- 
bert, and  governed  by  dukes  descended  from  his  brother  Ari- 
bert  Officers,  called  Mayors  of  the  Palace,  whose  original 
employment  had  been  the  presentation  of  petitions,  gradually 
usurped  all  power,  and  eventually  the  throne. 

The  Anglo- Saxons. 

On  the  decline  of  the  empire,  the  Roman  legions  were 
withdrawn  from  Britain.  The  inhabitants,  enervated  by  civili- 
zation and  a  long  peace,  were  as.«ailed  l)y  the  Picts  and  Scota. 
and  their  coasts  were  infested  by  the  inmrsions  of  the  tribei 


200  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  P-^T  " 

of  the  north.     Vortigern,  who  at  that  time  enjoyed  the  su 
premacy  over  the  Britons,  deemed  it  the  wisest  pohcy  to  gain 
8ie  alliance  of  some  of  these  last,  and  he  engaged  Hengist 
.  ^  and  Horsa,  two  Saxon  chiefs,  who  were  sailing  with  three 
uf.  ships  along  the  coast,  to  enter  his  service      With  their  aid 
the  Caledonians  were  reduced  to  peace      The  isle  of  Thanet 
was  assigned  to  these  useful  allies.     A  large  body  of  Saxons 
sailed  frSm  Germany  and  joined  them  m  that  place      The 
Saxon  chiefs  then  persuaded  the  British  kmg  to  mv  te  over 
more  of  their  countrymen,  and  plant  them  in  the  north.    He 
assented,  and  a  third  fleet  sailed  from  Germany      Peace  did 
not  long  continue  between  Vortigern  and  his  allies.    Saxons, 
Jutes,  Angles,  poured  over  in  vast  numbers :  adventurers  from 
all  parts  j^oined  them.     A  long  and  bloody  contest  ended  m 
eiving  the  Saxons  possession  of  all  the  plain  country  of  Brit- 
ain:  the  original  natives  could  only  mamtam  themselves  in 
Cornwall,  Wales,  and  the  district  along  the  western  coast,  m 
the  north:  a  portion  passed  over  to  Armonca,  and  gave  that 
country  its  present  name-Bretagne.     In  the  conquered  dis- 
tricts, the  original  natives  were  reduced  to  a%tate  of  thral 
682.  dom,  and  nearly  exterminated. 

Their  conquests  were  divided  by  the  Saxons  into  a  num- 
ber  of  separate  and  independent  kingdoms.  The  greates. 
number  at  any  time  was  eight;  but  conquest,  mheritance,  o. 
other  causes,  frequently  reduced  them  to  seven,  six,  five,  four, 
three,  which  were  again  dissolved,  and  the  number  mcreased. 
The  usual  train  of  murders,  usurpations,  tyranny,  and  op. 
pression  that  accompanied  the  various  Imes  of  barbariaa 
princes  settled  in  the  Roman  empire,  distinguished  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  monarchies ;  but,  with  their  barbarism  and  their  vices, 
they  retained  their  freedom,  and  the  germs  of  those  mstitu- 
tions  of  which  England  is  now  so  justly  proud. 

The  West-Goths  in  Spain. 

The  nature  of  the  country  has  always  favored  the  defence 
of  Spain.  Its  conquest  engaged  the  Rx)man  legions  during 
171  years;  and  the  same  period  elapsed  from  the  arrival  of 
ti  4  the  Gothic  king  Adolph  in  Catalonia,  before  the  ast  king  of 
the  Suevi  in  that  country  was  taken,  and  the  whole  penmsula 
submitted  to  the  Gothic  rule.  ,     .    o     •    •       ♦icc,^  „f 

The  history  of  the  Gothic  monarchs  in  Spain  is  a  tissue  of 
murders,  usurpations,  and  all  the  eyUs  attending  elective 
monarchy  among  an  uncivilized  people  In  117  years,  Leu- 
vigild,  the  first  monarch  of  all  Spain  had  seventeen  succe^ 
sore  \Vlien  the  monarchs  embraced  the  Catholic  faith,  the 
influence  of  the  clergy  greatly  increased ;  and  though  the  ar 


CHAP.  I.      BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  201 

dent  zeal  of  the  prelates,  in  their  numerous  councils,  incul- 
cated persecution,  many  laws  beneficial  to  the  people  in  gen- 
eral were  enacted  in  them ;  and  the  Visigoth  code  breathes  a 
more  enlightened  policy  than  those  of  the  other  states  founded 
on  the  ruins  of  Rome. 

During  a  great  part  of  this  period  the  coast  of  Spain  was 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  who  encour- 
aged the  disaffection  of  the  orthodox  subjects  of  the  Arian 
Goths.  When  Recared,  one  of  these  monarchs,  embraced 
the  Catholic  faith,  the  pretext  for  refusing  allegiance  was  re- 
moved, and  the  Gothic  monarchy  had  only  its  own  internal 
weakness  to  dread. 

The  Byzantine  Empire. 

The  eastern  or  Byzantine  empire,  so  called  from  the  an- 
cient name  of  its  capital,  continued  to  exist  to  the  end  of  the 
middle  ages ;  but  greatly  declined  from  the  rank  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  now  only  one  among  many  of  equal  power  and 
dignity.  Through  tJie  early  part  of  tliis  period  it  possessed 
nearly  all  that  was  apportioned  to  it  by  Theodosius ;  and,  in 
the  reign  of  Justinian,  Africa,  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  and 
the  coast  of  Spain,  were  annexed  to  it  Its  external  enemies 
were  the  Persians,  the  Huns,  and  other  tribes  on  its  northern 
frontiers ;  internally  it  was  agitated  by  the  contention  of  reli- 
gious parties,  for  which  a  remedy  was  vainly  sought  in  the 
assembling  of  general  councils  of  the  prelates  to  settle  by 
tlieir  votes  what  was  incapable  of  being  determined;  and  the 
conduct  and  character  of  the  majority  of  those  who  met  in 
solemn  assembly  at  Ephesus,  Chalcedon,  and  Constantinople, 
to  decide  on  the  nature  of  the  Son  of  God,  showed  how  small 
a  portion  of  his  spirit  was  abiding  among  them.  The  city  of 
Constantinople  was  continually  thrown  into  disorder  by  the 
furious  contentions  and  mutual  massacres  of  the  blue  and 
green  factions  of  the  Hippodrome,  and  their  respective  parti- 
sans and  favorites. 

ArcJidius,  the  son  of  Theodosius,  was  a  weak,  insignificant  a.  i 
prince,  entirely  governed  by  his  empress  and  his  faithless  ^^^ 
minister  RufUnus.     His  son,  Theodosius  II.,  partook  of  hia  408 
father's  weakness  of  character;  and  eunuchs  and  monks  ex- 
ercised unlimited  power  over  his  mind.    The  powerful  Attila 
threatened  the  throne  of  Byzantium,  and  the  feeble  successor 
»f  Constantino  trembled  and  paid  tribute ;  but  his  father  had 
lad  the  good  sense  and  magnanimity  to  commend  his  tender 
fouth  to  the  regard  and  protection  of  Yczdejird,   the   able 
monarch  of  Persia,  the  enlightened  tolerator  of  Cliristianity ; 
md  during  his  reign  the  empire  was  unmolested  on  tliat  sido. 


202  HISTOEY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

The  hours  of  Theodosius  were  devoted  to  study,  to  the  chase, 
and  to  the  occupations  of  his  court;  and  he  has  the  honor  of 
beinf^  the  first  monarch  who  caused  a  collection  ot  the  laws 
of  the  empire  to  be  made.  The  repose  of  his  latter  days  was 
disturbed  by  the  first  council  of  Ephesus;  wherem  the  trjbu- 
lent  CyrU  of  Alexandria,  by  violence  and  cruelty,  settled  the 
disputed  question  of  the  nature  of  the  meek  and  lowly  Jesus, 
in  opposition  to  his  rival,  the  less  fortunate,  but  perhaps  more 
.  n  pious,  Nestorius,  of  Constantinople. 

450       Pulcheria,  the  wise  and  talented  sister  of  Theodosius,  suc- 
ceeded.    Feeling  the  necessity  of  masculme  energy  at  the 
helm  of  the  state,  she  gave  her  hand  to  Marcian,  a  senator, 
who  had  in  early  life  distinguished  himself  m  the  Persian 
and  other  wars.    With  true  Roman  spirit,  Marcian  refused  to 
continue  the  tribute  of  his  feeble  predecessor  to  the  kmg  ot 
the  Huns.     AttUa  stormed  and  vowed  vengeance;  but  his 
attention  being  at  that  time  drawn  towards  the  West,  he  con- 
ned himself  to  threats  against  the  Byzantme  monarch. 
tS-J       On  the  death  of  Marcian  the  throne  was  filled  by  Leo,  a 
prince  not  unworthy  of  it;  but  he  stained  his  fame  by  his  in- 
gratitude to  Aspar,  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation.     His  in- 
fant grandson  succeeded,  whose  father,  an  Isaurian  by  birth, 
but  who  had  taken  the  Grecian  name  of  Zeno,  governed  m 
his  stead.     The  infant  emperor  dying  prematurely,  suspicion 
fell  on  his  father;  and  Verina,  the  widow  of  Leo,  drove  him 
from  his  throne,  which  she  bestowed  onher  brothei  Basilicus. 
But  this  prince,  having  offended  his  sister,  a  conspiracy  de- 
livered him  and  his  family  into  the  power  of  the  relentless 
491    Zeno,  who  recovered  his  throne.     On  the  death  of  Zeno,  his 
widow,  the  virtuous  Ariadne,  bestowed  her  hand  and  the  em- 
pire upon  Anastatius,  a  domestic  of  the  palace,  whoso  charac- 
ter is  expressed  by  the  popular  cry  at  his  accession :  "  Keign 
as  you  have  lived !"  .  , 

After  a  reign  of  twenty-seven  years,  Anastatius  diefl,  leav- 
ing no  heirs.     The  eunuch  Amantius  determmed  to  give  the 
purple  to  some  one  in  whose  obsequiousness  he  might  confide. 
To  assure  his  measures,  he  intrusted  a  large  sum  of  money, 
to  be  distributed  by  way  of  donative  among  the  guards,  to 
Justin  their  commander,  originally  a  Dacian  peasant    Justin 
was  false  to  his  trust :  he  gained  the  suflrages  of  the  soldiers 
518  for  hunself;   and  the  Uliterate  peasant  was  seated  on  the 
throne  of  the  Caesars,  which  he  occupied  not  discreditably 
durinar  a  reign  of  nine  years. 
627       Justinian  succeeded  his  uncle  Justm.     The  talent  of  this 
prince  lay  in  the  selection  of  fit  persons  to  execute  his  plana 
of  war  and  legislation ;  for  he  never  himself  appeared  in  the 


Ivan  IV.  the  Trrbiblb. 


Don  John  of  Austri*. 


CHAI    i.       BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  205 

field,  and  his  mind  was  narrow  and  confined.  Yet  Justinian 
haa  the  fame  of  formir.g  a  regular  and  copious  body  of  juris- 
prudence, embracing,  digesting,  and  simplifying  tlie  mass  of 
judicial  wisdom,  wlich  had  accumulated  under  the  kings, 
consuls,  and  emperors.  This  important  work  was  executed 
by  the  ablest  lawyers  of  the  age,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  great  Tribonian.  The  emperor  discerned  also  in  tlie 
camp  the  merit  of  Belisarius,  a  general  worthy  to  stand  in 
competition  with  those  of  any  age.  The  Roman  arms,  under 
the  conduct  of  Belisarius,  checked  the  pride  of  Persia;  over- 
turned the  Vandal ic  kingdom  in  Africa,  and  reduced  that 
country  to  a  province  of  the  empire ;  conquered  the  East- 
Goths  of  Italy,  and  led  their  king  a  captive  to  Constiintino- 
ple.  But  the  great  military  and  private  virtues  of  Belisarius 
were  shaded  by  too  slavish  a  submission  to  the  arbitrary  will 
of  an  ungrateful  court,  and  too  great  blindness  to  the  vices  of 
his  wife,  the  wanton  and  vindictive  Antonina.  The  emperor 
himself  was  the  slave  of  his  passion  for  the  empress  Theo- 
dora; who,  from  the  condition  of  the  vilest  of  prostitutes  and 
most  shameless  of  pantomimists,  had  been  elevated  to  a  share 
of  the  imperial  throne.  Justinian  had  a  thirst  for  fame;  he 
adorned  the  capital  with  stately  buildings.  The  church  of 
St.  Sophia,  now  a  mosch,  remains  a  monument  of  his  taste. 

One  of  his  nephews,  Justin  II.,  was  the  successor  of  Jus-  a.n 
tinian.  In  his  reign  Narsos,  the  valiant  eunuch,  offended,  as  ^^^ 
is  said,  by  an  expression  of  the  empress  Sophia,  invited  the 
Lombards  into  Italy  ;  and  that  country  was  lost  to  the  empire. 
Disease  afflicted  Justin:  lie  was  unable  to  leave  his  palace 
and  attend  to  the  affairs  of  his  people ;  his  mind  was  over- 
whelmed with  the  rntignitude  and  responsibility  of  his  office; 
he  resolved  to  appoint  a  successor,  and  abdicate.  The  em- 
press recommended  Tit)erius,  the  ca])tain  of  his  guard.  Justin 
transferred  to  him  his  diadem,  in  the  presence  of  the  patriarch 
and  the  senate  ;  and  during  the  four  years  he  survived,  he  ex- 
perienced every  attention  from  the  worthy  object  of  his  gen- 
erosity. 

Tiberius  governed  with  every  Idngly  virtue.  Success  57^ 
cniwned  the  arms  of  his  generals  in  the  Persian  war;  but  a 
fatal  di-sease  seized  on  the  excellent  monarch,  and,  in  four 
years  afler  the  death  of  Justin,  carried  him  off,  amidst  tlie 
tears  of  his  people.  He  gave  his  daughter  and  his  diadnm 
to  Maurice,  a  prince  worthy  to  occupy  his  throne.  But  in  a  582 
war  against  the  Avars,  a  tribe  of  Turkish  race,  Maurice  re- 
fused to  redeem  the  prisoners  who  had  fallen  into  their  hands. 
The  army  mutinied,  Mm!  invested  Phocas,  a  centurion,  with 
18 


k.  D. 


206  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  11 

the  purple ;  and  by  his  order  Maurice  and  his  children  were 
murdered. 

602.  The  vices  and  tyranny  of  Phocas  disgraced  the  throne 
which  had  been  adorned  by  the  virtues  of  his  predecessors. 
Every  province  was  ripe  for  insurrection.  Heraclius,  the 
exarch  of  Africa,  refused  tribute  and  obedience  to  the  tyrannic 
centurion.  Crispus,  the  son-in-law  of  Phocas,  who  trembled 
for  his  life,  joined  the  senate  in  calling  upon  Heraclius  to  save 
the  empire.  The  task  was  committed  by  Herac'ius  to  his 
son  of  the  same  name.  An  African  fleet  appeared  before 
Constantinople :  the  tyrant  was  deserted,  taken,  and  put  to 
death. 

"iio.  The  reign  of  Heraclius  was  a  series  of  struggles  against 
^reign  enemies.  Chosroes  (Khosroo),  the  Persian  monarch, 
under  pretext  of  avenging  the  death  of  Maurice,  had  made 
war  on  Phocas.  The  first  intelligence  Heraclius  received 
was  that  of  the  capture  of  Antioch.  Jerusalem  was  next 
taken  by  the  victorious  Persians ;  they  poured  into  Egypt, 
and  the  Persian  standard  was  carried  as  far  as  Tripoli  An- 
other Persian  army  lay  during  ten  years  encamped  on  the 
Rosphorus,  in  view  of  Constantinople.  The  Avars  occupied 
Thrace,  and  pressed  tiie  capital ;  and  Heraclius  narrowly  es- 
caped becoming  the  victim  of  their  perfidy.  A  peace  was  a 
length  granted  by  the  Persian  king,  on  the  condition  of  a 
most  enormous  tribute.  During  the  time  allotted  for  the  col- 
lection of  it,  Heraclius  prepared  for  a  desperate  struggle :  he 
put  forth  the  soul  and  energy  of  a  hero,  and  in  six  glorious 
campaigns  retrieved  the  honor  of  the  empire ;  Assyria,  and 
the  re<)ions  beyond  the  Tigris,  then  beheld,  for  the  first  time 
the  victorious  standards  of  Rome.  Meanwhile  the  heroism 
of  the  emperor  was  caught  by  his  people,  and  the  Avars  ana 
their  allies  were  driven  with  loss  from  before  Constantinople. 
But  while  Heraclius  and  Chosroes  were  thus  mutually  ex- 
hausting their  strength,  a  new  enemy,  who  meditated  the 
overthrow  of  both,  was  looking  on  with  secret  satisfaction ; 
and  in  the  heart  of  Arabia  a  storm  was  preparing  to  burst 
over  both  their  empires. 

Persia. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Parthians  had  recovered  the  greater 
part  of  the  original  dominions  of  the  Persian  kings  from  the 
descendants  of  Seleucus,  and  had  long  proved  the  most  for- 
midable enemies  of  them  and  of  the  Romans.  Their  empire 
had  gradually  declmed;  and  Ardeshir,  or  Artaxerxes,  a  Per- 
sian, and  an  officer  of  reputation  in  the  army  of  Artaban,  the 
Pnrthian   king,  and  who  was.  or  gave  himself  out  to  be,  » 


CHAP  1.      BARBARIANS  IN  THE  WESfERN  EMPIRE.  207 

lineal  descendant  of  the  ancient  Persian  monarchs,  thruugli 
his  valor  and  conduct  succeeded  in  wresting  the  sceptre  from  ^  ^ 
the  feeble  grasp  of  the  Arsacides,  and  tlie  empire  again  be-  2iifi 
came  Persian. 

The  restoration  of  every  thing  to  its  original  state  in  the 
glorious  days  of  the  ancient  monarchs,  was  the  first  object  of 
Ardeshir.  The  Mobeds  or  priests  of  the  national  religion 
were  summoned  from  their  retirement  to  consult  on  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  worsliip  of  Ormuzd  in  its  original  purity ; 
for  though  the  ancient  religion  had  not  undergone  any  perse- 
cution from  the  Arsacides,  it  had  not  been  held  in  honor,  and 
its  ministers  had  languished  in  obscurity.  But  now,  under  a 
prince  who  regarded  himself  as  the  son  of  the  Kaianides,  the 
ruligious  system,  which  had  animated  tlie  soul  and  nerved 
the  arm  of  that  illustrious  house,  was  again  to  flourish ;  the 
disciple  of  Zerdusht  (Zoroaster)  again  to  combat  beneath  the 
banner  of  Ormuzd,  against  Ahriman  and  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness ;  and  the  sacred  fire  to  flame  once  more  on  a  thousand 
altars. 

By  the  side  of  religion  stood  military  renown.  Ardeshir 
put  forth  a  claim  to  all  the  countries  once  contained  in  the 
Persian  empire,  and  carried  on  heavy  wars  with  the  Romans 
'or  Anterior  Asia,  where,  in  Armenia,  they  still  maintained 
on  a  throne  the  remnant  of  the  Parthian  royal  family.  Shah- 
poor  (Sapores,)  the  son  of  Ardeshir,  continued  the  wars  of  his 
father,  and  extended  his  empire  towards  the  west.  The  Ro- 
man emperor  Valerian  ended  his  days  a  captive  in  the  hands 
of  this  monarch.  Galerius,  whom  Diocletian  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  Cfcsar,  forced  tlie  Persifin  king,  Narses,  to  a  peace, 
which  lasted  forty  years,  and  gave  Osrhoene  and  Nisibis  to 
the  empire. 

The  Persian  Yezdejird  was  the  friend  of  the  emperor  Ar- 
cadius,  and  was  suspected  of  Christianity  by  his  orthodox  sub- 
jects. Bahram,  tlie  succeeding  king,  was  one  of  the  best  and 
greatest  of  the  Sassanides.  Feroze  made  war  on  the  Neph- 
thalites,  or  White  Huns,  whose  king  had  been  his  friend  and 
protector,  and  lost  his  life  in  battle  against  them.  His  son,  488 
Cobad,  waged  war  witli  the  emperor  Anastatius.  His  more 
illustrious  son  and  successor,  known  in  the  West  as  Chosroes, 
in  the  East  as  Noosheerwan  the  Just,  continued  the  wars  of 
his  father  through  the  reign  of  Justinian;  but  in  Belisarius  he 
met  an  opponent  such  as  the  empire  had  never  yet  opposed 
to  the  generals  of  the  Persian  kings.  The  struggle  was 
maintained  throughout  tlie  life  of  Noosheerwan  with  mutual 
loss,  and  the  final  gain  of  neither.  Hormuz,  his  son,  in  despite  57* 
of   he  careful  education  bestowed  by  his  father,  became  a 


208  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  It 

tyrant:  the  provinces  rose  in  rebellion;  the  Roman  arms  ad 
4.  IX  vanced  on  one  side,  the  Turkish  Khan  on  another.  A  hert^ 
590.  Bahram,  saved  his  country,  and  usurped  the  throne.  Hormui 
died  in  prison ;  his  son,  Khosroo,  fled  to  the  protection  of 
Maurice ;  the  Roman  arms  and  his  faithful  subjects  restored 
him  to  the  throne  of  his  fathers :  Bahram  fled  to  the  Turks, 
and  there  died  by  poison.  Khosroo,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
took  arms  to  avenge  the  murder  of  his  protector  Maurice,  and 
■♦28.  carried  on  a  long  and  bloody  war  with  Heraclius.  Defeated 
by  the  Romans,  he  was  murdered  by  his  son  Siroes.  The 
parricide  enjoyed  the  fruit  of  his  crimes  but  eight  montha 
Twelve  years  longer  tlie  empire  was  agitated  by  anarchy  and 
bloodshed,  till  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Arabian  khalifs  ended 
the  dominion  of  the  house  of  Sassan  in  the  person  of  Yezde- 
lird  III. 


CHAP.  n. 


THE   TIMES    OF   MOHAMMED   AND   THE    FIRST   KHAUFS. 

Mohammed. 

While  Chosroes  of  Persia  was  pursuing  his  dreams  of  re- 
covering and  enlarging  the  empire  of  Cyrus,  and  Heracliua 
was  gallantly  defending  the  empire  of  the  Csesars  against 
him ;  while  idolatry  and  metaphysics  were  difiusing  their 
baleful  influence  through  the  church  of  Christ,  and  the  sim- 
plicity and  purity  of  the  Gospel  were  nearly  lost  beneath  tlie 
mythology,  which  occupied  the  place  of  that  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome,  the  seeds  of  a  new  empire,  and  of  a  new  religion, 
were  sown  in  the  inaccessible  deserts  of  Arabia. 
Sfiy-  At  the  time  when  the  sceptre  of  Constantinople  was  swayed 
by  the  pious  nephew  of  o  ustinian,  and  that  of  Persia  by  the 
vigorous  hand  of  Noosheerwan  the  Just,  was  born  in  the  city 
of  Mecca,  in  Arabia,  Mohammed,  the  son  of  Abdallah,  and 
grandson  of  Abd-ul-Motallib,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  gen- 
erous chiefs  of  the  Koreish.  Mohammed  was  early  left  an 
orphan ;  his  uncles  were  numerous  and  powerful,  and,  in  the 
division  of  his  grandfather's  property,  his  share  was  but  five 
camels  and  a  female  slave.  His  uncle  A  boo  Taleeb  reared 
him :  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  entered  the  service  of  Kha- 
dijah,  a  rich  widow  of  Mecca ;  and  with  her  merchandise  ac- 
companied the  caravans  to  Damascus.  The  honor  and  fidelity 
of  the  factor  to  his  mistress  was  exemplary ;  the  person  of 
Mohammed  was  handsome  and  dignified,  his  aspect  majestic; 


CHAP,  n         MOHAMMED  AND  THE  FIRST  KHALIFS.  209 

his  eye  penetrating',  his  smile  irresistible,  his  voice  harmoni- 
ous, and  eloquence  flowed  from  his  tongue.  Khadijah  admired 
and  loved ;  the  generosity  of  Aboo  Taleeb  made  up  the  defi- 
ciency of  his  nephew's  fortune :  she  gave  him  her  hand  and 
her  wealth,  and  thus  raised  him  to  his  proper  rank  in  society. 
The  gratitude  and  affection  of  the  son  of  Abdallah  caused  the 
noble  matron  never  to  regret  her  act. 

Mohammed  was  of  a  serious  contemplative  mind.  He  had 
long  been  convinced  of  the  great  truth  of  the  unity  of  the 
Deity,  and  he  mourned  over  the  idolatry  of  his  countrymen. 
[n  the  solitude  of  a  cavern  near  Mecca,  whither  he  used  to 
retire  for  meditation,  he  reflected  on  the  best  mode  of  bring- 
ing them  to  an  acknowledgment  of  the  truth.  Arabian  tra- 
dition spake  of  ancient  prophets  sent  to  reclaim  men  from 
error;  Moses  and  Jesus  were,  he  knew,  commissioned  from 
heaven  to  teach  ;  he  may  iiave  expected  a  similar  commission; 
his  enthusiasm  may  .have  beguiled  his  imagination,  and  in 
ecstatic  vision  tlie  angel  Gabriel  possibly  may  have  appeared 
to  descend  to  him :  but  it  is  far  more  probable  that  he  con- 
ceived that  the  end  justified  the  means ;  that  the  arguments 
of  reason,  which  he  had,  porhaps,  already  tried,  would  have 
no  eflfect  on  the  obtuse  minds  of  the  adorers  of  860  idols ;  that 
only  as  the  envoy  of  heaven  could  he  look  for  attention,  and 
that  his  first  vision  of  Grabriel  was  as  fictitious  as  his  latter 
ones  notoriously  were. 

In  the  40th  year  of  his  age,  Mohammed  announced  to  his  t!09 
wife  Khadijah,  his  slave  Zeid,  his  pupil  Ali,  and  his  friend 
Abof^  Beker,  a  direct  commission  from  God  to  preach  the 
doctrine  of  his  Unity.  They  may  have  believed,  they  may 
have  seen  the  distant  prospects  of  temporal  power  and  glory 
that  awaited  them ;  they  acknowledged  the  prophet.  During 
tlie  ne.xt  three  years,  ten  of  the  principal  citizens  of  Mecca 
mbraced  the  new  faith.  In  the  fourth  year,  he  offered  the 
lessing  to  his  own  kindred,  the  race  of  Ilashem;  and  was 
warned  in  vain  by  Aboo  Taleeb,  the  father  of  Ali,  to  abandon 
his  impracticable  project.  Ten  years  longer  he  preached 
pul)licly  and  privately  in  Mecca  to  the  inhabitants  and  as- 
sembled pilgrims,  warning  them  to  embrace  the  truth,  and  to 
remember  the  fate  of  the  tribes  of  Ad  and  Thamood,  whose 
impenitence  had  brought  down  the  vengeance  of  offended 
heaven. 

Persecution  was  at  length  employed  against  him  and  his 
disciples.  As  long  as  Aboo  Taleeb  lived,  he  protected  his 
nephew,  though  he  rejected  his  prophetic  claims;  but  he 
died:  the  faithful  Khadijah  soon  followed  him;  Alxv)  Sofian, 
%  declared  enemy,  succeeded  to  the  place  and  power  of  Aboo 
18* 


A    E 


210  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  11 

Taleeb ;  and  the  death  of  Mohammed  was  resolved  on.  Timely 
information  enabled  him  and  his  friend  Aboo  Beker  to  fly  to 
the  concealment  of  a  cavern;  where,  durmcr  three  days,  they 
escaped  the  perquisitions  of  their  enemies.  They  then  mount- 
ed their  camels  and  fled  towards  Yatreb :  on  the  road  they 

».  D.  were  overtaken ;  but  by  prayers  and  promises  they  escaped. 

622.  This  memorable  event,  denominated  tlie  Hejira,  or  Flight, 
gave  name  and  origin  to  the  era  by  which  years  are  counted 
in  all  countries  professing  the  tenets  of  Islam. 

At  Yatreb,  henceforth  called  Medinat-en-Nabi  (the  City 
of  the  Prophet),  he  was  received  with  every  testimonial  of 
respect.  Its  principal  citizens  had  already  formed  with  him 
at  Mecca  a  treaty  of  conversion  and  alliance;  and  the  people 
had  ratified  the  compact,  and  now  submitted  to  his  rule  as 
prophet  and  king.  War  ensued  between  his  new  subjects 
and  his  foes  at  Mecca :  the  white  banner  of  the  prophet  was 
soon  seen  to  float  before  the  gates  of  Medina ;  and  his  sacred 
person  was  not  unsparingly  exposed  in  the  tumult  of  the 
conflict 

Mohammed  may  have  been  originally  only  an  enthusiast, 
and  have  dreamed  of  no  other  weapons  for  the  diffiision  of  his 
faitli  than  those  of  eloquence  and  persuasion.  At  the  head 
of  an  army  he  became  a  fanatic.  The  sublime  doctrine  of 
the  Unity  might,  he  saw,  be  made  the  foundation  of  temporal 
dominion.  The  Koran — the  book  of  his  law — now  breathes 
a  fiercer  tone,  and  the  sword  is  to  be  called  to  the  aid  of  the 
truth.     Henceforth  we  are  to  contemplate  the  prophet  as  a 

62a  prince  and  conqueror  at  the  head  of  armies.  The  battle  of 
Beder  was  the  commencement  of  his  career  of  victory.  Aboo 
Sofian  was,  with  only  thirty  or  forty  followers,  conducting  a 
caravan  of  1000  camels :  a  party  of  the  troops  of  the  prophet, 
in  number  313,  lay  in  wait  for  it;  the  Koreish,  to  the  amount 
of  100  horse  and  850  foot,  advanced  to  its  protection.  The 
prophet  and  his  troops  lay  between  the  caravan  and  the 
troops  of  Mecca :  he  determined  to  assail  the  latter ;  exhorted 
his  men,  ascended  a  pulpit,  and  called  on  God  for  the  aid  of 
Gabriel  and  3000  angels.  His  troops  were  yielding;  the 
prophet  mounted  his  horse,  cast  a  handful  of  sand  into  the 
air,  crying,  "Let  their  faces  be  covered  vi^ith  confusion." 
The  Koreish  were  panic-struck,  and  fled ;  70  were  slain,  an 
equal  number  taken  prisoners.  A  second  battle  was  fought 
a,t  Mount  Ohud,  near  Mecca.  The  Koreish  were  3000  strong, 
the  followers  of  the  prophet  numbered  hut  950;  and,  notwith- 
standing his  military  skill  and  valor,  he  was  forced  to  abandon 
the  field,  and  the  bodies  of  70  of  the  saints.  Next  year  10,00C 

625  men  sat  down,  in  vain,  before  the  wails  of  Medina;  tempests 


MicHAKL  Romanoff. 


:HAP.  tl.      MOHAMMED  AND  THE  FIRS"   KHALIFS.  213 

and  dissension  forced  them  to  reiire  without  fame,  and  the 
Korrish  lost  their  hopes  of  overcoming  the  exile. 

Tiifi  Jews  fonned  several  tribes  in  Arabia.  Mohammed  at 
first  sought  to  gain  them  to  his  ^ith ;  but,  finding  them  in 
flexible,  he  unsheathed  the  sword  against  them.  Everywhere 
their  resistance  was  overcome,  and  their  treasures  divided 
among  tlie  victorious  Mussulmans.  The  conquest  of  Mecca 
was  the  object  next  the  prophet's  heart :  he  advanced  against 
it ;  but  awed  by  the  martial  appearance  of  the  Koreish,  he 
negotiated  and  concluded  a  truce  for  ten  years,  stipulating  a 
permission  to  enter  the  city  the  following  year  to  perform 
his  devotions.  In  the  pilgrimage  made  in  consequence  by 
him  and  his  followers,  Khaled  and  Amroo,  the  bravest  war- 
riors of  the  Koreish,  embraced  the  faith  of  Islam.  The  Kore- 
ish were  soon  accused  of  breach  of  truce ;  10,000  Moslems 
marched  against  the  holy  city ;  resistance  was  not  to  be  at- 
tempted ;  and  Aboo  Sofian  in  person  presented  the  keys  to  ^  ^ 
Mohammed,  and  confessed  him  to  be  the  prophet  of  the  one  6W 
true  God. 

The  last  great  efl^ort  in  the  sinking  cause  of  the  idols  was 
made  in  the  valley  of  Honain,  in  the  war  called  that  of  the 
Idols.  A  confederacy  was  formed,  at  the  head  of  which 
stood  the  people  of  Tayef,  a  strong  fortress,  sixty  miles  south- 
east of  Mecca :  4000  of  the  confederates  occupied  the  valley 
of  .onain;  12,000  Moslems  advanced  with  rash  confidence, 
anci  were  speedily  thrown  into  confusion :  the  prophet  was 
surrounded,  and  only  saved  by  the  devotedness  of  ten  of  his 
disciples;  his  own  voice,  and  that  of  his  uncle  Abbas,  re- 
stored the  battle.  The  idolaters  were  finally  routed ;  Tayef 
taken,  and  their  temples  destroyed.  The  whole  of  Arabia 
now  acknowledged  that  "  there  was  but  one  God,  and  thac 
Mohammed  was  his  prophet ;"  and  a  train  of  114,000  True 
Believers  attended  his  last  pilgrimage  to  the  Caabah. 

When  the  Moslem  ambassador  waited  on  Heraclius  to 
invite  him  to  the  profession  of  Islam,  a  degree  of  amity  en- 
sued between  the  emperor  and  the  prophet.  The  murder  of 
a  Moslem  envoy  in  tlie  empire  gave  the  Arabs  the  wished-for 
pretext  for  invading  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan.  The 
command  of  3000  men  was  intrusted  to  Zeid,  and  in  case  of 
his  death  to  Jaaifer,  and  then  to  Abdallah.  In  the  battle  of 
Muta  the  three  leaders  fell  gallantly  fighting.  Kiialed  re- 
stored the  battle,  and  repulsed  the  Christians.  At  the  head 
of  10,000  horse,  and  20,CKH)  foot,  the  prophet  advanced 
towards  Syria,  in  the  hottest  season  of  the  year.  Thoir  suf- 
ferings were  intolerable ;  and  when  lliey  reached  the  fountain 
of  Tabook,  midway  between  Mecca  and   nnniascii!».  he  do- 


k.D 


214  '  BISTORT  OJ-  THE  WORLD.  PART  n. 

clared  himself  satisfied  of  the  peaceful  intentions  of  the  em- 
peror; perhaps  he  dreaded  the  number  and  vabr  of  the 

_.  „  Roman  troops. 

630  In  the  63d  year  of  his  age,  Mohammed,  after  beholding  his 
religion  spread  over  the  Arabian  peninsula,  felt  the  approach 
of  death:  he  comforted  and  instructed  his  friends  and  the 
people,  manumitted  his  slaves,  gave  orders  about  his  funeral, 
appointed  Aboo  Beker  to  pronounce  public  prayer  in  his  place, 
and  then  calmly  expired.  The  disconsolate  Moslems  wouk 
not  believe  him  dead  till  their  clamor  was  silenced  by  the 

632.  scimitar  of  Omar  and  the  arguments  of  Aboo  Beker. 

The  First  Khalifa. 
On  the  death  of  the  prophet,  it  might  have  been  expected 
that  Ali,  his  cousin  and  earliest  disciple,  and  who  was  mar- 
ried to  his  daughter  Fatema,  would  have  been  appointed 
Khalif,  i.  e.  successor ;  but  Ayesha,  the  favorite  wife  of  Mo- 
hammed, was  his  mortal  enemy.     Discord  was  on  the  point 

632.  of  breaking  out,  when  Omar  proposed  the  election  of  the 
venerable  Aboo  Beker:  he  was  accepted,  and  durmg  two 
years  governed  with  justice  and  impartiality.  In  his  reign, 
the  indefatigable  Khaled  continued  his  conquests  m  Syria, 
and  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  the  khalif  was 
obeyed. 

634.  The  sceptre  was  bequeathed  by  the  khalif  to  Omar,  one  of 
the  oldest  of  the  companions  of  the  prophet.  In  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign,  Omar  perished  by  the  dagger  of  an  assas- 
sin. Ali  still  forbore  putting  forward  his  claims;  and  sa 
electors,  of  whom  he  himself  was  one,  chose  Othman,  the 

644.  secretary  of  the  prophet 

Othman  was  unequal  to  his  high  situation :  old  age  had 
enfeebled  his  mental  powers.  The  subjects  became  discon- 
tented. A  large  army  assembled  before  Medina ;  the  khalif 
was  forced  to  surrender,  and  he  fell  with  the  Koran  in  hig 
lap.  The  brother  of  Ayesha  headed  the  assassins.  The  public 

555.  choice  now  fell  on  Ali. 

Ali  in  old  age  displayed  all  the  daring  courage  of  his  youth. 
Two  powerful  chiefs,  Telha  and  Zobeir,  erected  the  standard 
of  revolt  in  Irak :  they  were  joined  by  Ali's  implacable  enemy, 
Ayesha,  and,  mounted  on  her  camel,  she  appeared  in  the 
thickest  of  the  battle,  encouraging  the  rebels,  but  in  vain ; 
they  were  slain,  and  she  was  taken.  The  khalif  reproached 
her,  and  then  dismissed  her  to  pass  the  remainder  of  her  days 
at  the  tomb  of  the  prophet.  A  more  formidable  enemy  now 
appeared  in  Moawiyah,  son  of  Aboo  Sofian,  and  governor  of 
Syria,  who  assumed  the  title  of  khalif,  and  gave  himself  o  • 


A    D 


iJHAP.  II.        jtfOHAMMED  AND  THE  FIKST  KHALIFS.  215 

as  the  avenger  of  Othman,  wliose  Woody  shirt  he  exposed  in 
the  inosch  of  Damascus.  I'he  cause  of  Moawiyah  waa  em- 
bcaced  by  Amroo,  llie  conqueror  of  Egypt  Ali  took  the  field 
with  an  inferior  force,  and  during  110  days  a  war  waa  wao-ed 
on  the  plain  of  Siffin,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
to  the  advantage  of  Ali,  till  the  superstition  and  disobedience 
of  his  troops  forced  him  to  yield  to  a  treaty.  Ali  did  not  long 
.survive.  Three  fanatics  met  in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  and 
agreed  to  murder  Ali,  Moawiyah,  and  Amroo,  as  the  only 
means  of  restoring  peace  to  tlic  church  and  state.  Each  chose 
his  victim:  he  alone  succeeded  who  selected  Ali,  who  fell  by 
his  dagger  in  the  mosch  of  Cufa,  in  tlie  63d  year  of  his  age. 
Moawiyah  was  now  acknowledged  khalif,  and  the  seat  of  em-  ^  „ 
pire  transferred  to  Damascus.  6oO 

The  virtues  of  the  first  four  khalifa  are  acknowledged ; 
but,  by  a  large  portion  of  the  Mohammedan  church,  the  first 
three  are  looked  on  and  cursed  as  usurpers.  Those  that  hold 
this  opinion  are  denominated  Sheeahs,  and  it  is  an  article  of 
their  faith,  that  Ali  is  the  vicar  of  God.  This  is  the  estab- 
lished religion  of  Persia.  The  Soonees,  or  orthodox,  to  whom 
the  Turks  belong,  regard  all  the  four  as  rightful  successors 
of  the  prophet,  but  they  assign  the  lowest  degree  of  sanctity 
to  Ali.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add,  that  the  hatred  of  the 
rival  sects  is  most  cordial  and  intense. 

Conquest  of  Syria. 

During  the  reign  of  the  first  four  khalifs,  Syria,  Persia, 
and  Egypt  were  conquered  by  their  lieutenants,  and  the  law 
of  the  Prophet  embraced,  or  tribute  yielded,  by  tiie  inhabit- 
ants. 

On  the  accession  of  Aboo  Beker,  he  dispatched  an  army,  63t 
under  the  command  of  Aboo  Obeidah,  for  the  conquest  of 
Syria.  The  first  object  of  their  attack  was  the  fortress  of 
Bozra,  eastward  of  the  Jordan.  The  false  confidence  of  the 
people,  and  the  treachery  of  the  governor,  delivered  it  into 
flic  hands  of  the  Moslems.  Damascus  was  distant  but  four 
flays'  journey ;  its  siege  was  undertaken  ;  but  intelligence  of 
the  approach  of  a  large  army  to  its  relief,  induced  the  Mo- 
hammedan chiefs  to  suspend  their  operations  till  they  had 
encountered  the  imperial  forces.  All  the  forces  scattered  on 
the  borders  of  Syria  and  Palestine  were  summoned  to  tlie 
standard  of  the  faith. 

On  the  plains  of  Aiznadin,  the  troops  of  the  khalif,  45,000  633 
in  number,  and  guided  by  Khaled,  Amroo,  and  their  most  dis- 
tinguished leaders,  encountered  the  Christian  host  of  70,000 
naen.    Liberal  offers  of  peace  were  made  by  tlie  Greeks,  and 


216  HISTORY  OF  TUB  WORLD.  PART  n. 

disdained  by  the  Arabs.  The  conflict  began;  it  continued 
throughout  the  day  with  doubtful  success;  in  the  evening, 
Khaled  made  a  furious  onset,  and  victory  declared  for  the 
Moslem  arms :  the  field  was  covered  with  the  bodies  of  the 
Christians,  and  inestimable  booty  rewarded  the  victors.  Da- 
mascus was  again  invested.  Animated  by  their  brave  gov- 
ernor, Thomas,  a  nobleman  allied  to  the  emperor,  the  garrison 
and  citizens  offered  a  gallant  resistance ;  till  after  experienc- 
ing the  inutility  of  all  the  efforts  of  valor,  they  capitulated  to 
the  mild  and  upright  Aboo  Obeidah,  on  condition  of  those  who 
chose  being  permitted  to  depart  with  as  much  as  they  could 
,  t  carry  of  their  effects,  and  those  who  stayed  being  allowed  to 
6  retain  their  lands,  houses,  and  seven  churches  tributary  to 
the  khalifs.  A  large  number  departed.  Urged  by  the  im- 
portunity of  a  Syrian  renegade,  whose  mistress  was  among 
the  fugitives,  Khaled  pursued  them  with  4000  horse.  The 
ill-fated  Damascenes  were  overtaken ;  not  a  soul,  save  one, 
escaped  the  Arabian  scimitar ;  but  the  traitor  to  his  country 
and  his  faith  perished  by  the  dagger  of  his  indignant  mistress 
at  the  moment  he  attempted  to  embrace  her. 
63>  The  following  year  saw  Heliopolis,  or  Baalbek,  the  capital 
of  the  rich  valley  of  Hollow  Syria,  and  Hems,  or  Emessa,  the 
chief  city  of  the  plain,  in  the  hands  of  the  khalirs  lieuten- 
ants. 

636  The  banks  of  the  Yermuk,  a  stream  that  flows  from  Mount 
Hermon  into  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  was  the  scene  of  the  last 
great  battle  for  the  possession  of  Syria.  Eighty  thousand  of 
file  imperial  troops  stood  with  60,000  Christian  Arabs  of  the 
tribe  of  Gassan  against  the  Moslems.  It  was  the  most  doubt- 
fiil  day  the  faithful  had  yet  seen  ;  but  the  Sword  of  God  (so 
Khaled  was  styled)  was  victorious.  Countless  was  the  loss 
of  the  Christians ;  4030  Moslems  lay  on  the  plain. 

After  a  month  spent  at  Damascus,  to  recruit  their  vifi^o 
and  divide  the  spoil,  the  impatient  host  marched  to  invest  tii 
sacred  walls  of  Jerusalem.  The  siege  lasted  four  months ; 
a  surrender  was  then  offered  to  the  khalif  in  person.  The 
sanctity  of  the  place  moved  Omar,  and  he  undertook  the  jour- 
ney from  Medina  through  the  waste.  The  holy  city  received 
the  khalif,  and  on  the  site  of  the  temple  he  laid  the  founda- 

637  tion  of  the  mosch  named  from  himself. 

538  Aleppo  and  Antioch,  the  only  remaining  places  of  strength, 
submitted  to  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Arabs,  and  aU  Syria 
obeyed  the  successor  of  the  prophet.  Heraclius  abandoned 
that  portion  of  his  dominions  in  despair,  and  the  ravages  of 
the  Moslems  extended  to  withm  view  of  Constantinople. 


Ill  ;iliMtii"''' 


■7:  '. 


^^X 


CHAP.  IL        MOHAMMED  AND  THE  FIRST  KHALIF8  219 

Conquest  of  Persia. 

In  the  first  year  of  Aboo  Beker,  Khaled  appeared  on  the  g32 
banks  of  the  Euphrates.  In  the  same  year  with  the  conquest 
of  Syria,  30,000  Moslems  engaged  the  numerous  host  of  Yez-  6.S8 
dejird  III.,  the  youthful  grandson  of  Khosroo,  on  the  plains 
of  Cadesia,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  61  leagues  from  the 
future  Bagdad.  The  troops  of  Persia  were  commanded  by 
Roostem,  a  namesake  of  the  national  hero;  the  Direfsh-e- 
Kawanee,  or  Apron  of  Kawah,  the  banner  of  the  empire, 
blazed  in  their  front.  On  the  fourth  day  of  the  battle,  the 
flying  Roostem  was  overtaken  and  slain,  and  the  jewel-set 
Direfsh-e-Kawanee  was  captured.  All  Irak,  the  ancient  As- 
syria, submitted,  and  the  city  of  Bassora  was  founded,  to  com- 
mand the  trade  of  Persia. 

In  the  third  month  after  the  battle,  the  Tigris  was  passed ; 
iVIadain  or  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  waa  taken 
by  assault,  and  immense  plunder  enriched  the  faithful.  Yez- 
dejird  had  fled  to  Holwan,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Media. 
The  loss  of  the  fortress  of  Jaloola  made  him  fly  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Farsistan,  the  country  of  Cyrus.  At  Nahavend,  to 
the  south  of  Hamadan,  1.50,000  Persians  made  a  final  effort 
for  their  country  and  their  religion.  The  appellation,  Victory 
of  victories,  bestowed  on  this  battle  by  the  Arabs,  proves  the 
fatal  result  All  the  cities  and  towns  of  Persia  submitted  to 
the  conquerors.  Their  banners  approached  the  Caspian  and 
the  Oxus.  Vezdejird  had  fled  to  Chorasan,  and  taken  refuge 
in  Merv.  The  governor  of  that  city  invited  the  khakan  of 
the  Turks  to  take  possession  of  his  person.  The  Turks  en- 
tered, and  made  themselves  masters  of  Merv.  Yezdejird  es- 
caped during  the  confusion,  and  sought  shelter  with  a  miller, 
who  murdered  him  while  he  slept,  for  the  sake  of  his  rich  651 
irms  and  robes. 

Conquest  of  Egypt. 

The  year  in  which  the  conquest  of  Syria  was  completed  638 
*Jiat  of  Rgypt  commenced.  Aniroo  marched  from  Gaza  with 
4000  Arabs.  After  a  siege  of  thirty  days,  Pelusium  surren- 
dered. Memphis  held  out  seven  months  against  the  Saracen 
army,  now  double  its  original  number.  It  was  taken  by  as- 
sault. The  city  of  Cairo  rose  on  the  spot  where  tlie  Arabs 
had  encamped. 

Religious  enmity  fiicilitated  the  conquest  of  the  country. 
The  Egyptians  hated  the  creed  and  the  government  of  the 
emperors.  A  treaty  was  entered  into  between  Amroo  and 
Mokawkas,  a  noble  Egyptian.    It  was  agreed  that,  for  a  mod- 


220  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  U. 

erate  tribute,  the  Christian  inhabitants  should  be  left  in  the 
<\ill  enjoyment  of  their  religion  and  their  property.  The 
whole  nation  fell  off  from  the  Greeks,  and  every  assistance 
was  rendered  to  the  Arabs.  The  city  of  Alexandria  remained 
to  be  conquered;  an  achievement,  perhaps,  surpassing  in 
difficulty  any  the  Arabs  had  yet  attempted.  Its  inhabitants 
were  numerous  and  resolute,  its  supplies  abundant,  the  sea 
was  open,  affording  a  facility  of  relief.  The  Saracens  strained 
every  nerve ;  the  tribes  of  the  desert  crowded  to  the  standard 
t.  n.  of  Amroo ;  the  Egyptians  labored  strenuously,  and,  at  the 
^■'39  end  of  fourteen  months  and  the  loss  of  2.3,000  men,  the  Mos- 
lems saw  themselves  masters  of  the  capital  of  Egypt.  The 
khalif  rigidly  forbade  pillage ;  a  tribute  was  imposed  on  the 
inhabitants.  The  truth  of  the  destruction  of  the  library  of 
the  Ptolemies  has  been  questioned.  The  loss  of  Alexandria 
hastened  the  death  of  Heraclius.  In  the  space  of  four  years 
two  fruitless  attempts  were  made  to  recover  it. 

Invasion  of  Africa. 

5-47.  Under  the  reign  of  Othman  the  conquest  of  Africa  was 
attempted  by  the  Moslem  arms,  led  by  Abdallah,  the  foster- 
brother  of  the  khalif  At  the  head  of  40,000  men,  he  ad- 
vanced from  Egypt  into  the  west.  After  a  toilsome  march 
they  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Tripoli;  but  tlie  approach 
of  the  prefect  Gregory,  with  a  numerous  army,  called  the 
Saracens  from  the  siege  to  the  field.  For  several  days  the 
two  armies  encountered  from  morning  till  noon.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Gregory  fought  by  his  side,  and  her  hand  and  100,000 
pieces  of  gold  were  offered  to  the  warrior  who  should  bring 
the  head  of  the  Arab  general.  Zobeir,  who  afterwards  feil 
in  rebellion  against  the  khalif  All,  joined  his  brethren :  hia 
stratagem  defeated  the  army  of  Gregory,  who  fell  by  hia 
hand.  The  town  of  Sufatula,  1.50  miles  south  of  Carthage, 
was  taken.  The  country  on  all  sides  implored  the  clemency 
of  the  conqueror ;  but  his  losses  and  the  appearance  of  an 
epidemic  disease  prevented  a  settlement  being  formed,  and 
after  a  campaign  of  fifteen  months,  the  Saracen  army  re-en- 
tered Egypt  with  their  captives  and  their  booty. 

From  the  battle  of  Beder  till  the  death  of  AH,  a  period 
elapsed  of  37  years,  during  which  the  arms  of  the  Arabs  had 
penetrated  from  the  heart  of  Arabia  to  the  banks  of  the 
Oxus  and  Indus,  and  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
The  Nile  ro  led  within  their  dominions ;  Africa,  Cyprus,  and 
Rhodes,  had  jeen  visited  and  plundered  by  their  victorioua 
warriora 


CHAP    II.       MOHAMMED  AND  THE  FIRST  KHALIFA.  221 

The  Ommiyades. 

When  Ali  was  murdered,  his  rights  passed  to  his  son  Has- 
san, who  was  induced  by  Moawiyah  to  abandon  his  claim 
and  retire  to  Medina.  The  khalifat  was  now  established  in 
the  house  of  Oininiyah,  in  which  it  continued  during  seventy 
years  through  fourteen  khalifs,  and  extended  its  sway  from 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Atlantic  to  the  borders  of  Turkestan 
and  India,  the  largest  empire  and  most  powerful  monarchs  of 
the  globe.  This  dynasty  derived  its  appellation  from  Oinmi- 
yah,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  tlie  Koreish :  Aboo  Sofian,  his  de- 
scendant, long  resisted  the  prophet ;  his  son,  Moawiyah,  be- 
came his  secretary,  and  Omar  made  iiim  governor  of  Syria. 
The  first  Ommiyah  Khalif  was  a  man  of  courage,  though  he 
declined  the  proposal  of  the  chivalrous  Ali,  who  offered  to 
decide  their  dispute  by  single  combat:  his  son  Yezid,  and  his 
successors,  were  princes  of  little  merit,  and  never  partook  in 
the  toils  and  glories  of  war. 

Conquest  of  Africa. 

Oppressed  by  the  exactions  of  the  court  of  Byzantium,  the 
people  of  Africa  invoked  the  aid  of  the  Arabs.    The  lieuten- 
ant of  Moawiyah  entered  Africa,  defeated  an  imperial  army 
of  30,000  men,  and  returned  laden  with  booty.     Akbeh,  a   . 
valiant  warrior,  marched  from  Damascus  with  10,000  Arabs ; 
his  army  was  joined  by  numerous  African  auxiliarits;  victory 
led  him  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and  he  founded  the 
city  of  Cairoan,  fifty  miles  south  of  Tunis,  to  secure  his  con- 
quests.   But  Akbeh  fell  in  battle  against  the  revolted  Greeks 
and  Africans.     His  successor,  Zuheir,  shared  his  fate.     The 
final  conquest  was  reserved  for  Hassan,  governor  of  Egypt, 
who  took  and  destroyed  Carthage,  and  subdued  the  Berbers  4.  l 
of  the  desert.     Musa,  his  successor,  broke  their  power  ef-  Toy 
fectually  when  they  rose  in  rebellion. 

Conquest  of  Spain. 

The  Gothic  monarchy  in  Spain  was  now  utterly  enfeebled 
Having  no  foreign  foes,  military  discipline  had  been  neglect- 
ed, and  luxury  had  quite  altered  the  descendants  of  Theo- 
deric.  Roderic,  a  nobleman,  had,  on  the  death  of  Witiza, 
ascended  his  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  two  sons  of  that 
monarch:  their  uncle,  Oppas,  was  arclibishop  of  Toledo: 
Count  .Julian,  a  partisan,  was  governor  of  Ceuta  and  Andalu- 
sia; the  malcontents  were  numerous.  It  is  added,  tliat  Rod- 
eric had  given  farther  ofTencp-  hv  violating  Cava,  tJie  daughtet 
of  Julian. 
19* 


222  HISTORY  OF  THB  WORLD.  a  <f  11 

Julian  had  repulsed  Musa  from  the  walls  a  -  <  ita,  but 
soon  after  he  entered  into  correspondence  »•  «     .*;,e  Arab 

\  i>.  chief,  and  offered  to  give  him  entrance  into  Sp .««.    The  per- 

•  ^"  mission  of  the  khalif,  Walid,  was  obtained.  A  sniail  body 
of  troops,  commanded  by  Tarif,  passed  over  and  advanced  to 
the  castle  of  Julian,  at  Algeziras,  where  they  were  hospita- 

711  bly  entertained  and  joined  by  the  Christians.  The  following 
spring  5000  Moslems,  under  the  command  of  Tarik,  passed 
over  and  landed  at  Gibraltar,  named  from  their  chief  They 
defeated  the  Gothic  commander  sent  against  them.  Roderic 
collected  an  army  of  near  100,000  men ;  the  Saracens  were 
augmented  to  12,000,  besides  their  Spanish  and  African  aux- 
iliaries. On  the  banks  of  the  Guadaleta,  near  the  town  of 
Xeres,  the  battle  was  fought  which  decided  the  fate  of  the 
Gothic  monarchy.  Three  days  were  occupied  in  bloody  but 
undecisive  skirmishing,  the  fourth  was  the  day  of  general 
conflict.  The  Saracens  were  yielding  to  multitudes ;  Tarik 
still  animated  his  men,  when  Oppas  and  the  sons  of  Witiza, 
who  occupied  the  most  important  post  in  the  army  of  the 
Goths,  passed  over  to  the  enemy,  and  turned  the  fortune  of 
the  field.  The  fliglit  and  pursuit  lasted  three  days.  Roderic 
fled  on  the  back  of  his  swiftest  horse,  but  escaped  the  battle 
only  to  be  drowned  in  the  waters  of  the  Guadalquivir. 

The  whole  country  submitted  without  resistance  to  the 
victorious  Tarik.  Toledo,  the  Gothic  capital,  opened  her 
gates,  stipulating  only  for  freedom  of  religion  and  internal 
government.  Within  almost  as  short  a  time  as  a  traveller 
could  traverse  Spain,  the  general  of  Musa  beheld  the  bay  of 
Biscay.  Envious  of  the  fame  of  Tarik,  Musa  hastened  his 
passage  to  Spain  at  the  head  of  18,000  men :  the  cities  of 
Seville  and  Merida  resisted ;  and  the  defence  of  the  latter 
■  was  obstinate,  and  only  subdued  by  famine.  The  Tarrago- 
nese  province  was  speedily  overrun  by  Tarik,  and  the  Gotha 
were  pursued  into  their  Gallic  province  of  Septimania.  A 
valiant  remnant  of  the  Goths  maintained  their  independence 

'II-  in  the  rugged  mountains  of  Asturia.  All  the  rest  of  Spain 
obeyed  the  successors  of  the  prophet. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  klialif  Walid  received  intelli- 
gence of  the  conquest  of  Spain,  messengers  from  the  East 
arrived  to  announce  the  first  successes  of  the  Mussulman 
arms  in  India. 

Invasion  of  France  by  the  Arabs. 

668       The  Arabs  of  the  East  had  twice  besieged  Constantmople  • 
<fe    eacn  time  they  had  retired  with  dishonor.     The  commandei 
of  the  faithful  had  even  paid  tribute  ^  the  Eastern  emperor. 


LONG-HAIRED    KING,  WITH    HIS    MAJOR    DOMI. 


Peasants  of  Finland.. 


CHAP.  II.      MOHAMMEU  AND  THE  FIRST  KUALIFS.  225 

Five  years  after  the  raising  of  the  second  siege  of  the  a.  d. 
Eastern  capital,  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  was  menaced  ''21 
with  destruction  by  the  khalif's  viceroy  in  Spain.     Eudes, 
duke  of  Aquitaine,  was  a  prince  nearly  independent  of  the 
feeble  successors  of  Clovis.     The  Moslems  claimed  Septima- 
nia  from  him  as  a  part  of  tlie  Spanish  monarchy.     An  army 
passed  the  Pyrenees,  but  was  defeated,  and  its  leader  slain, 
before  the  walls  of  Toulouse.     A  second  appeared,  and  re- 
duced all  France  from  the  Garonne  to  the  Rhone.  The  valiant 
Abd-er-rahnian  resolved  on  the  conquest  of  the  whole  of  tlie 
dominions  of  the  Merovingians :  he  laid  siege  to  Aries,  and 
defeated  an  army  sent  to  its  relief:  to  the  north  of  Bourdeaux 
he  encountered  and  slaughtered  the  army  of  Eudes.     The 
Moslems  appeared  before  Tours  and  Sens  in  Burgundy :  their 
troops  were  beheld  from  the  walls  of  Lyons  and  Besan^on 
Fortunately  there  was  a  hero  in  France.     Charles  the  son  of 
Pepin  was  mayor  of  the  palace  in  Neustria :  he  collected  an 
army  of  French  and  Germans,  and  encountered  the  Arabs  on 
the  plains  between  Tours  and  Poitiers.     On  the  seventh  day  732 
of  the  conflict  victory  declared  for  the  Europeans :  Abd-er- 
rahman  fell ;  the  Saracens  retired,  fell  into  dissension,  and 
evacuated  the  country,  to  which  they  never  returned.    More 
than  300,000  Moslems  are  said,  with  gross  exaggeration,  to 
have  fallen ;  and  the  epithet  of  Martel,  the  Hammer,  bestow- 
ed on  Charles,  proves  the  vigor  of  his  arm  in  the  conflict. 

France, 

The  degenerate  descendants  of  Clovis  had  during  this  period 
sunk  into  utter  insignificance.  All  power  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  mayors  of  the  palace :  these  officers  headed  the  armies, 
and  disposed  of  lands  and  offices.  The  kmgs,  retired  m  their 
palace,  enjoyed  the  luxury  of  a  wcll-furnished  table,  and  on 
the  May  meetings  (Champs  de  Mai)  of  the  nation,  tliey  were 
drawn  in  their  chariot  by  four  oxen  to  receive  the  homage  ot 
their  people,  and  follow  the  directions  of  the  mayor,  llic 
diirnity  of  mayor  was  transmitted  from  father  to  son.  Pepin 
Heristal  appointed  his  illegitimate  son  Charles  to  succeed 
bim,  in  preference  to  his  lawful  issue;  and  the  field  of  Tours 
"ustified  his  choice. 

The  Lombards. 

Authar,  king  of  the  Lombards,  governed  his  people  with  584 
^risdom  and  equity,  and  fought  with  success  against  the  .m- 
serial   exarchs  and   the  Franks.     His  widow,  Theudehnda,  690 
married  AjriU.lf,  duke  of  Turin:  the  nation  received  him  a* 
kkig      Pope  Gregory  1.  mediated  peace  between  h.m  and  5W 


226  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PAUT  IL 

the  exarchs;  and  he  also  cultivated  peace  with  tiie  Franks 
and  Avers.     His  queen  encouraged  the  beneficent  sway  of 

^.  u  the  Christian  religion,  and  gradually  brought  the  Lombards 

616  to  relish  the  delights  of  peace.  Agilulf  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Adelwald;  but  losing  his  senses  by  drink,  the  sceptre 

625  was  transferred  to  his  brother-in-law  Ariwald.  On  the  death 
of  Ariwald,  Rother,  another  son-in-law  of  Agilulf,  was  elect- 

636.  ed.  This  prince  first  collected  the  laws  of  the  Lombards  into 
a  code.     His  son  and  successor,  Rodwald,  was  murdered  by 
man  whose  wife  he  had  abused ;  and  the  nation  elected  An 

652.  bert,  nephew  of  queen  Theudelinda,    Aribert  sought  to  leav 
his  sons  Perthari  and  Godibert  joint  sovereigns :  they  fell  into 

661.  discord.  Godibert  was  slain  by  Grim wald,  duke  of  Benevento, 
one  of  his  own  partisans :  Perthari,  on  hearing  this,  fled  to 
Hungary.  Grimwald  reigned  with  justice,  and  defeated  the 
Franks  who  came  in  aid  of  Perthari :  this  latter  succeeded 

671.  him,  and  reigned  with  great  mildness  and  equity.  After  va- 
rious transitions,  the  crown  was  placed  on  the  head  of  Ans- 

710.  brand,  a  Bavarian,  a  man  advanced  in  years  and  wisdom.  Hia 
son,  Liiprand,  was  the  most  powerful  and  one  of  the  ablest  of 
the  Lombard  monarchs.  Great  friendship  prevailed  between 
him  and  Charles  Martel,  who  sent  his  son  to  have  his  hair 
first  cut  by  the  Lombard  king,  who  thereby,  according  to  the 
ideas  of  the  Franks,  became  a  second  father  to  the  young 
Pepin. 

Constantinople. 

641 .  Heraclius  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Constantine  11.,  with 
vvhom  the  queen  Martina  had  her  own  son  Heraclionas  asso- 
ciated. Constantine  died  after  a  short  reign  of  103  days. 
Heraclionas  and  his  mother  were  banished,  and  Constans  IL, 
the  son  of  Constantine,  a  boy  of  twelve  years,  placed  on  the 
throne.  He  caused  his  brother  Theodosius  to  be  murdered , 
passed  over  to  Italy  ;  waged  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the 
Lombards ;  plundered  Rome  and  several  other  cities  of  .  taly 

"162.  and  Sicily  of  the  works  of  art,  which  he  collected  in  Syracuse, 
and  embarked  for  Constantinople ;  but  the  ships  which  car- 
ried them  were  taken  by  the  Saracens  and  brought  to  Alex- 
andria.    Their  precious  freight  was  dispersed  and  lost  Con- 

668.  Btans  was  murdered,  after  a  six  years'  residence  in  Sicily. 

In  the  reign  of  his  son  Constantine  IV.  Africa  was  lost,  and 

ea").  Constantinople  besieged.  Justinian  II.  succeeded,  was  ex- 
pelled, returned,  and  exercised  the  most  savage  cruelty. 
Pnilippicus  Bardanes  avenged  humanity  on  the  tyrant ;  bul 

711    was  himself  dethroned   and  blinded.     Anastatius  followed 

^13  The  army  raised  a  native  of  Adramyttium  tc.  the  throne,  b^ 


CHAP.  111.      CHARLEMAGNE  AND  HAROON-ER-RASHEED.       227 

cause  his  name  was  Theodosius :  he  laid  down  his  dignity  as   ^ 
soon  as  he  safely  could  ;  and  Leo,  an  Isaurian,  a  brave  man,  ',  i 
was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  which  he  gal- 
lantly defended  two  years  against  the  arms  of  the  khalifs. 

Germany. 
Germany  received  during  this  period  the  first  beams  of  the 
beneficent  light  of  the  Gospel.  An  Englishman,  named  VVin- 
fred,  went  tlirough  the  country  preaching  the  faith,  and 
drawing  the  people  from  the  worship  of  idols :  he  collected 
them  into  towns,  where  afterwards  cities  rose.  The  pope 
Gregory  II.  beholding  his  zeal,  bestowed  on  Winfred,  now 
called  Boniface,  tlie  dignity  of  a  bishop,  and  the  office  of 
">egate.  Mentz  became  the  see  of  this  first  bishop,  whence, 
as  the  sword  of  Charles  Martel  smote  the  rude  tribes  of  Ger- 
many, the  bishops  inviied  them  to  receive  the  religion  of 
Rome,  and  the  more  polished  manners  of  the  Franks.  The 
sword  and  the  Gospel  went  together  in  Germany,  as  the 
sword  and  the  Koran  in  Asia.  Monasteries,  those  asylums 
of  peace,  amidst  the  storms  of  the  middle  ages,  were  founded 
in  Germany  by  the  labors  of  Boniface. 

England. 
In  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great,  the  Gospel  was 
preached  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  by  Augustine  and  his  com- 
panions, sent  by  the  zealous  pontiff  from  Rome  with  that  de- 
sign. Their  first  efforts  were  in  the  kingdom  of  Kent,  whose 
king,  Ethelbert,  was  married  to  a  Christian  princess  of  the 
house  of  Meroveus.  The  king  and  his  nobles  embraced  the 
newTaith,  which  was  gradually  extended  to  the  other  king- 
doms into  which  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  partitioned  the  island. 
It  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  character  and  piety  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  princes,  that  continually  the  world  was  edified 
by  the  sight  of  one  of  them  quitting  his  throne,  and  all  the 
pomps  and  cares  of  royalty,  and  retiring  to  pass  the  evening 
of  his  days  in  the  shade  of  a  monastery,  or  in  the  holy  citv 
->f  the  supreme  pontiff 


CHAP.  m. 

THK   TIMES    OF    CHARLEMAGNE    AND    HAROON-ER-RASlIlKa 

Italy. 
Among  other  practices  of  the  ancient  heathenism  which 
oad  gradually  crept  into  the  church  of  Christ,  was  that  of  the 
worship  of  images.     When  Leo,  the  Isaurian,  mounted  the 


228  mSTOBY  OS  THB  world.  part  II 

imperial  throne,  either  guided  by  reason,  or  by  early  preju- 
dices, he  warmly  espoused  the  side  of  the  Iconoclasts,  image- 
breakers,  who  opposed  their  worship,  and  a  council  assembled 
at  Constantinople  pronounced  it  to  be  heretical.  When  the  im- 

A  D.  psrial  edict  arrived  in  Italy,  obedience  to  it  was  reflised ;  and, 

728.  at  the  exhortation  of  Pope  Gregory  U.,  all  Italy,  save  Naples, 
rose  in  arms  to  oppose  the  profane  emperor :  his  troops  were 
massacred  when  they  landed  in  that  country ;  and  the  pope 
in  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  was  about  to  direct  the  election 
of  a  new  emperor. 

The  authority  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  in  Rome  was- 
little  more  than  nominal :  the  city  had  nearly  returned  to  its 
republican  form ;  the  bishop  was  considered  as  the  first 
magistrate ;  and  thus  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes  was 
founded  on  the  best  of  grounds,  the  free  choice  of  the  people. 
A  series  of  able,  enterprising,  and  dignified  pontiffs,  the  three 
Gregories,  Zachary,  Stephen,  Paul,  firmly  established  this 
sacerdotal  dominion. 

Liitprand,  king  of  the  Lombards,  took  Ravenna,  and  men- 
aced Rome.  This  prince  aimed  at  uniting  all  Italy  under  one 
Bovereign  ;  but  the  policy  of  the  popes,  and  the  resistance  of 
the  princes  and  states,  prevented  the  execution  of  his  designs. 

744.  The  iron  crown  passed,  after  the  death  of  his  nephew  and 
successor  Hildebrand,  to  Rachis  duke  of  Friuli,  who  shortly 
after,  with  his  wife  and  daughter,  abandoned  the  cares  of 

749  royalty,  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Monte  Casino.  The 
choice  of  the  nation  fell  on  his  brother  Astolfo  (Aistulf).  This 
prince  made  the  final  conquest  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna, 
and  summoned  Rome  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty.  The 
pride  of  Rome  and  the  pope  disdained  submission,;  but  their 
strength  was  unequal  to  the  conflict :  they  turned  their  eyes 
for  aid  beyond  the  Alps ;  and  Stephen  III.  in  person  crossed 
those  mountains  to  implore  the  compassion  of  the  pious  Franks^ 
and  of  Pepin,  the  illustrious  son  of  Charles  Martel.  He  im 
plored  not  in  vain :  an  army,  led  by  Pepin  in  person,  entered 
Italy,  and  Astolfo  swore  to  respect  the  possessions  of  the 
church ;  but  hardly  was  Pepin  gone,  when  the  Lombard  forgot 
his  vow.     Pepin  was  again  called  on,  and  Astolfo  was  again 

756.  reduced  to  submission. 

Astolfo  was  succeeded  by  Desiderius,  duke  of  Tuscany. 
Falling  into  a  dispute  about  their  frontiers  with  pope  Hadrian 
n.,  the  latter  called  on  his  powerfiill  ally,  Charlemagne,  son 
of  Pepin :  the  passes  of  the  Alps  were  betrayed,  the  vassala 
fell  off,  the  Lombard  king  was  shut  up  in  Pavia,  his  capital, 
his  valiant  son  Adelgis  vamly  implored,  in  person,  aid  at  By- 

T74   zantium.     After  a  siege  of  two  years,  treachery  gave  Pavia 


u 
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CHAP.  131.    CHARLEMAGNE  AND  HAROON-ER  RASHEED.         231 

to  the  French,  and  Lombardy  became  a  part  of  the  empire  of  ,  „ 
the  son  of  Pepm.  A  grateful  pope  (Leo)  crowned  the  Frencl,  SbS 
monarch  emperof  of  the  West  Rome  did  homage  to  his 
power:  the  duke  of  Benevento,  whose  duchy  embraced  the 
nriodem  kmgdom  of  Naples,  acknowledged  himself  his  vassal- 
the  Venetians,  who,  since  the  days  of  Attila,  had  dwelt  in 
tlieir  isles  and  lagunes,  revered  his  authority. 

The  Lombards  retained  their  laws  and  usages;  each  person 
and  each  district  of  Italy  was  governed  by  local  or  adopted 
laws.  Ihe  great  cities  were  governed  by  dukes,  aided  by  a 
council  of  bishops,  abbots,  counts,  knights,  and  gentlemen. 
Ihe  pope  exercised  at  Rome  the  power  possessed  by  the 
dukes  m  the  other  cities.  He  was  chosen  by  the  clertry  and 
oeople,  and  the  choice  confirmed  by  the  emperor. 

Empire  of  Charlemagne. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  Martel  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks 
was  thrown  into  some  confusion.     The  German   provinces 
armed  m  favor  of  his  son  Grypho,  against  his  brothers  Carlo- 
man  and  Pepm.     The  latter  were  victorious  in  the  contest, 
and  an  end  was  put  to  the  duchy  of  AUemannia.     Chilperic 
occupied  the  seat  of  Clovis;  the  power  of  the  monnrchy  was 
wielded  by  Pepin.     Pope  Zachary  pronounced   Ihat  it  waa 
lawful  for  the   title  to  follow  the  power ;   and  at  Soissons, 
where,  266  years  before,  the  empire  of  the  Franks  had  been 
founded  by  Clovis,  his  last  descendant  was  formally  deposed 
in  an  assembly  of  the  nation,  and  sent  to  end  nis  days  in  a  752 
convent,  and  Pepin  crowned  in  his  place.  The  new  monarch 
quickly  destroyed  his  brother  Carloman,  and   humbled  the 
great     His  chief  e.xploits  were  against  the  Lombards  in  de-  768 
fence  of  the  popes.  At  his  death  he  divided  his  dominions  be- 
tween his  sons  Charles  and  Carloman.     The  latter  lived  but 
three  years,  and  suspicion  of  having  hastened  his  end  fell 
upon  his  brother.  77] 

Charles,  afterwards  called  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the 
Great,  early  in  his  reign  overturned  the  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
lurds.  During  thirty  years  he  carried  on  an  obstinate  war 
against  the  Saxons,  on  whom  he  sought  to  impose  his  yoke 
and  Christianity.  Headed  by  Wittikmd,  a  second  Arminius, 
the  gallant  nation  resisted  with  vigor  and  oerseverance.  Gott- 
fried, king  of  Denmark,  aided  and  gave  refuge  to  them  ;  but 
the  Obotrites  of  Mecklenburg  joined  the  Franks,  and  Witti- 
kind  and  his  people  were  at  last  forced  to  receive  the  religion 
and  the  law  of  Charlemagne.  Several  abandoned  their  coun- 
try and  took  refiige  in  Denmark,  whence  tlioir  desccndtuita 
uQ'ted  with  the  Northmen  issued,  and  avenged  the  blood  of 


23^  HI8T0BI  OF  THE  WOELD,  PARI  D 

their  fathers  on  the  descendants  oi  liii^ir  oppressors.  lu  Spain 
Charles  appeared  as  the  ally  of  the  emir  of  Zaragoza,  and  es- 
tablished the  Spanish  March,  extending  from  the  Ebro  to  the 
Pyrenees.  Barcelona  was  the  residence  of  the  French  gov- 
ernor. In  Germany,  he  extended  the  French  dominion  to  tiie 
Elbe,  and  added  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  to  the  Germanic 
body.  A  conflict  of  eight  years  against  the  Avars  of  Pan 
nonia  gave  him  the  possession  of  that  country.  His  empire 
tlius  extended  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Elbe,  from  the  ocean  to 
the  Vistula,  and  the  Teyss  and  Save,  The  duke  of  Bene- 
vento  acknowledged  his  supremacy;  the  king  of  England 
was  his  friend ;  the  Christian  princes  of  Spain  regarded  him 
as  a  patron.  Haroon-er-Rasheed  honored  him  by  gifts  as  an 
equal.  Master  of  two-thirds  of  tlie  Western  Roman  empire, 
he  was  crovmed  emperor  of  the  Romans  by  Leo,  on  the  fes- 
tival of  Christmas,  A.  D.  800,  in  the  sacred  temple  of  St. 
Peter.  His  dynasty,  called  the  Carlovingian,  from  Charles 
Martel,  formed  the  second  in  France.  After  a  long  and  vic- 
.  D.  torious  reign  he  left  his  empire,  which  he  had  widely  ex- 
814.  tended,  and  to  which  he  had  given  a  code  of  laws,  to  his 
eon  Louis  the  Debonair. 

Feudal  System. 

As  France  was  the  chief  seat  of  this  celebrated  system,  the 
present  period  seems  not  unsuitable  for  giving  a  slight  view 
of  it. 

The  Franks,  like  the  Burgundians,  Lombards,  and  others 
of  the  barbarous  nations,  carried  their  original  Germanic 
ideas  with  them  into  the  countries  they  conquered.  The  land 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  districts,  over  each  of  which 
was  a  count  to  administer  justice  and  collect  the  revenue  in 
peace,  to  lead  the  military  contingent  in  war.  Several  of 
these  counties  were  under  a  duke.  These  offices  were  ori- 
ginally precarious,  but  gradually  became  hereditary  in  fami- 
lies,  and  the  foundation  of  power  and  independence. 

At  the  conquest,  the  lands  which  had  been  seized  were 
distributed  mto  portions,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  occu- 
pant. That  of  the  king  was  considerable,  and  those  of  the 
principal  officers  proportionably  large.  These  lands  were 
allodial,  held  in  propriety  on  the  sole  condition  of  serving  in 
the  defence  of  the  country.  The  owner  of  three  mansi^  was 
obliged  to  serve  in  person ;  where  there  were  three  posssessors 
of  single  mansi,  one  served,  the  others  contributed  ^c  equip 


•  A  mansni  contained  twelve  iueera  of  Ian  J.    Oucang»- 


CHAP.  III.  CHARLEMAGNK  AND  HAROON  ER  RASHEED  233 

him.    All  served  at  their  own  expense,  and  the  period  of  ser- 
vice was  limited. 

Of  the  Romans,  or  original  inhabitants,  some  retained  their 
lands  in  propriety ;  others  farmed  those  of  the  Franks.  They 
were  governed  by  their  own  laws.  But  the  Franks  stood 
higher  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  and  the  Weregild,  or  compoei- 
tion  for  homicide,  was  always  much  greater  in  the  case  of  a 
Frank  than  of  a  Roman. 

The  demesne  lands  of  the  crown  were  very  extensive. 
They  were  the  private  estate  of  the  sovereign,  whence  he 
was  to  support  his  dignity.  Portions  of  these  lands  were 
frequently  granted  by  the  kings  to  favorites,  under  the  name 
if  benejires,  under  the  usual  condition  of  military  service, 
S'hich  service  appears  to  have  differed  from  that  of  the  allo- 
dial proprietors  in  this,  that  that  of  the  latter  was  rather  na- 
tional, that  of  the  former  rather  due  to  tlie  monarch  person- 
ally. These  benefices  were  granted  for  life,  and  then  re- 
turned to  the  crown  ;  but  the  son  of  the  beneficiary  was  gen- 
erally continued  in  his  benefice,  and  under  the  feeble  Mero- 
vingians the  benefices  mostly  became  hereditary.  The  hold- 
ers of  hereditary  benefices  now  began  to  bestow  portions  of 
their  benefices  on  others  to  hold  of  themselves,  under  a  simi- 
lar tenure  of  military  service.  This  practice,  called  sub-in- 
feudation,  spread  greatly  after  the  deatli  of  Charlemagne, 
and  we  have  here  the  germ  of  the  whole  feudal  system,  with 
its  burdens  and  obligations. 

The  dukes,  counts,  and  marquisses,  or  margraves,  who 
guarded  the  marches  or  frontiers,  gradually  encroached  on 
the  royal  dignity.  They  made  their  dignities  hereditary; 
they  sought  to  appropriate  to  themselves  the  crown  lands 
within  their  jurisdiction ;  they  oppressed  the  free  proprietors. 
These  last  were  hitherto  the  strength  of  the  state,  and  shared 
in  the  legislature,  owing  no  duty  but  military  service  against 
the  public  enemy.  They  now  were  exposed  without  protec- 
tion to  the  tyranny  of  the  count  or  duke.  The  protection  of  a 
powerful  man  was  the  only  security;  the  allodial  lands  were 
surrendered  and  received  back  as  feudal ;  their  owner  ac- 
knowledged himself  the  vassal  of  a  suzerain,  and  took  on  him 
the  feudal  obligations. 

These  obligations  were  mutual,  as  those  between  patrons 
and  clients  at  Rome :  the  vassal  was  bound  to  follow  his  lord 
to  war  during  a  limited  period,  usually  forty  days,  and  that 
even  against  a  si'penor  lord  or  the  king;  he  was  not  to  di- 
vulge his  lord's  counsel,  to  ir.Jure  his  person  or  fortune,  or  the 
honor  of  his  family.  In  battl"  he  was  to  give  his  horse  to  liia 
jord  if  dismounted,  to  give  tunself  as  a  hostage  for  hira  if 
20* 


234  HISTORY   OF   THE   WOELD.  PABT  U. 

taken  in  battle  for  enabling  him  to  celebrate  the  marriage  of 
his  eldest  son  with  proiDer  pomp,  and  to  provide  a  suitable 
dowry  for  his  daughter.  But  in  almost  every  European  coun- 
try where  the  feudal  system  prevailed,  it  differed  greatly  in 
its  details.  Indeed  there  were  more  than  eighty  different 
tenures  enumerated  in  the  statutes  governing  its  holdings. 
In  case  of  a  non-fulfilment  of  his  duties  or  non-payment  of 
his  fines,  the  vassal  could  be  deprived  of  his  land.  In  some 
cases  the  vassal  held  his  property  by  some  trivil  service,  in 
others  he  had  to  pay  a  heavy  rent,  this  latter  was  generally  in 
kind,  wheat,  cattle,  &c. 

England. 

Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  w^as  married  to  a  Christian  Prin- 
cess. When  therefore,  some  of  her  countrymen  landed  at 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  permission  was  readily  accorded  to  them. 
At  first  the  King  hesitated  to  embrace  the  new  religion;  but 
af  ter'a  long  discussion  and  inquiry  into  the  new  tenets,he  gave 
them  leave  to  preach  to  his  subjects,  and  soon  after  the  ruler 
became  a  convert,  and  his  sixbjects  followed  him.  So  rapidly 
did  the  religion  of  the  cross  win  its  way  that  ten  thousand 
converts  were  baptized  on  one  Christmas  Day.  He  gave  up 
his  own  palace  to  the  missionaries,  and  Canterbury  Cathe- 
dral was  shortly  after  built.  For  a  while  his  successor  aban- 
doned the  Christian  faith,  but  finally  became  a  steadfast  be- 
Uever. 

The  various  petty  Kings  who  had  ruled  in  different  parts  of 
England,  one  after  another,  embraced  the  true  faith,  and 
their  si;bjects  generally  followed  the  example  of  their  rulers. 
But  Christianity  was  not  allowed  to  become  firmly  established 
without  many  violent  struggles.  The  priests  of  the  idola- 
trous beliefs  died  hard,  and  fought  sturdily  for  the  fanes  ''of 
their  ancient  superstitions.  The  aim  of  the  different  petty 
Kings  was  to  bring  all  the  divisions  under  one  King,  and  to 
attain  this  end  never  hesitated  at  assassination.  Meanwhile 
much  of  the  time  of  the  religious  orders  and  the  ardent  be- 
lievers was  given  to  'the  building  of  churches  and  monaste- 
ries, and  they,  also,  taught  the  people  many  useful  employ- 
ments. 

Constayitinople. 

After  Leo  (717),  a  number  of  Emperors  succeeded;  many 
only  rulers  in  name.  The  Eastern  Empire,  though  nominally 
ruled  from  Constantinople  was  virtually  in  the  hands  of  Vice- 
roys, who  were  engaged  in  almost  perpetual  wars  with  savage 
assailants.  Internal  dissentions  occupied  the  little  warlike  zeal 
that  was  left,  various  sects  sprang  up,  and  angry  discussions 
prevailed  between  the  Latin  and  Greek  faiths.  At  length  an 
emperor  arose  who  tried  to  enforce  uniformity.     He  decreed 


ill      _  ai; 


•«.* 


'•T-.'^^^SKxy 


Wallenitein. 


CHAP  111.  UllARJ.EMAUNE  AND  HaUuo.n  Ck  R  ISIIEEU.  237 

against  the  image  worship;  the  evil  had  come  to  too  ereat  a 
^eacl.     His  son  and  son-m-law  possessed  the  throne  but  three  .  „ 
pars.     A  soldier,  Leo  Bardanes,  next  ascended  the  throne  •  813 
but  court  intrigfues  and  monkish  arts  impeded  his  judicious 
policy.     His  successor,  Michael  of  Amorium,  was  feeble  and 
unfortunate.  ^ 

The  external  enemies  of  the  empire  durino-  this  period 
were  the  Arabs  under  the  Abbasside  khalifs,  who  ravacred 
Lesser  Asia,  and  the  Bulgarians,  a  Slavonian  tribe,  wholid- 
vanced  southwards  towards  the  Adriatic,  where  they  subse- 
quently occupied  Dalmatia.  They  were  now  on  the  southern 
bank  ot  the  Danube,  in  the  country  named  from  them  Tlie 
emperor  Nicephorus  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  with  this  nation.     8l(i 

The  Abbasside  Khalifs. 

The  house  of  Ommiyah  failed  in  gaining  the  affections  of 
its  subjects.  The  family  of  the  prophet  was  esteemed  best 
entitled  to  his  throne  and  pulpit.  Of  the  line  of  Hashem,  the 
Fatemites,  or  descendants  of  Ali  by  Fatema,  the  dauo-hter  of 
the  prophet,  had  the  prior  claim ;  but  they  were  wanting  hi  746 
courage  or  talent.  The  Abbassides,  the  family  of  the  proph- 
et 8  uncle,  Abbas,  were  numerous,  prudent,  and  united :  their 
partisans  were  chiefly  in  Persia,  where  Aboo  Moslem,  their 
chief  support,  first  gave  them  dominion  by  the  conijuest  of 
Khorassan.  Persia  was  from  east  to  west  a  perpetual  scene 
of  conflict  between  the  rival  parties  of  the  while  and  the  black, 
as  they  were  styled,  from  the  colors  of  their  ensigns.  The 
Ommiyades  unfurled  the  white  banner  of  the  prophet;  their 
rivals  displayed  the  opposite  hue.  Ibrahim,  the  ohiuf  of  the 
house  of  Abbas,  was  waylaid  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  by 
the  troops  of  Damascus,  and  he  expired  in  the  dunn-eons  of 
Haran:  his  brothers,  Saffah  and  Alinansor,  escaped"  to  Cufa. 
SafTah  was  there  proclaimed  khalif  Mervan  IL,  the  Ommi- 
yade  khalif,  collected  a  large  army,  and  met  the  host  of  Saffah 
on  the  banks  of  the  Zab.  The  Abbasside  troops  were  least 
in  number;  but  fortune  favored  them.  Mervan  fled  to  f^gypt; 
and  in  another  engagement  at  Busir,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
he  lost  both  life  and  empire.  75t) 

The  unfortunate  race  of  Ommiyah  was  now  sought  out 
and  slaughtered.  One  youth  alone,  Abd-er-rahman,  escaped 
the  perquisitions  of  the  Abbassides,  and  he  fled  to  Africa.  He 
was  invited  over  to  Spain  by  tlie  friends  and  servants  of  his 
house.  The  governor,  Yu.ssuf,  was  forced  to  yield  to  his  arms;  755 
and  from  the  city  of  Cordova  the  scoplre  of  the  Ommiyades 
ruled  during  2^3  years  over  the  eight  provinces  into  which 
Spain  was  divided. 


238  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IL 

After  a  short  reign,  Saffah  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Altr.ansor.  The  royal  residence  had  at  first  been  Medina . 
Ali  transferred  it  to  Cufa;  and  Moawiyah  to  Damascus.  Per- 
sia was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Abbusside  power ;  and  Almansor 

4.  D.  laid,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  the  foundations  of 

762.  Bagdad,  the  royal  seat  of  his  posterity /or  five  hundred  years. 
The  arms  of  Almansor  were  successful  against  the  nomades 
of  Toorkistan ;  but  his  expedition  against  the  Ommiyade  khalif 
of  Spain  encountered  only  disgrace  and  defeat. 

The  Greeks  had  taken  advantage  of  the  civil  dissensions 
of  the  Moslems  to  recover  a  portion  of  their  dominions.  Mo- 
hadi,  the  successor  of  Almansor,  retaliated  during  the  reign 
of  Irene  and  her  son.  Haroon,  his  second  son,  at  the  head 
of  9.5,000  Persians  and  Arabs,  invaded  Lesser  Asia ;  and  from 
the  heights  of  Scutari,  within  view  of  the  imperial  city,  dic- 
tated the  terms  of  an  ignominious  peace. 

'SI.  Five  years  after  this  war,  Haroon-er-Rasheed,  or  the  Just, 
ascended  the  throne  of  his  father  and  his  elder  brother.  Du- 
ring a  reign  of  twenty-three  years,  this  active  prince  eight 
times  invaded  the  Grecian  territories.  In  vain  the  emperor 
Nicephorus  sent  haughty  defiances  and  denials  of  tribute 
in  vain  he  assembled  large  armies:  his  troops  fled  in  dismay 
before  the  disciplined  bands  of  the  commander  of  the  faithful 
and  the  Byzantine  gold  was  annually  poured  into  the  treasury 
of  Bagdad.  The  memory  of  Haroon  is  renowned  alike  in 
both  the  East  and  West,  as  the  hero  of  history  and  tale ;  but 
it  is  indelibly  stained  by  the  slaughter  of  the  princely  and 
guiltless  Barmecides. 

^4.  On  his  death  his  throne  was  disputed  by  his  three  sons; 
and,  in  the  civil  conflict,  Al-Mamoon,  the  son  of  the  filthy 
slave  of  the  kitchen,  triumphed  over  the  issue  of  the  haughty 
Zobeide.  The  memory  of  this  prince  is  dear  to  literature 
and  science,  of  which  he  was  the  zealous  patron ;  and  his 
peaceful  acquisitions  eclipse  tlie  martial  deeds  of  his  father. 

Under  the  first  khalifs  and  the  house  of  Ommiyah,  no 
literature  was  attended  to  but  the  Koran  and  their  native  po- 
etry. Almansor  began  to  encourage  the  acquisition  of  foreign 
literature :  it  was  also  patronized  by  Haroon ;  but  Al-Mamoon 
far  outstripped  all  his  predecessors  in  its  cultivation.  At  his 
command,  his  agents  and  his  ambassadors  collected  the  best 
works  of  Grecian  science,  and  his  translators  gave  them  an  ■ 
Arabic  dress.  The  astronomy  of  Ptolemy,  the  medicine  of 
Galen,  the  n)etaphysics  of  Aristotle,  were  read  and  commented 
on  in  the  language  of  Arabia.  The  Ommiyade  khalifs  of 
Cordova,  the  Fatemites  of  Africn,  vied  with  those  of  Bagdad 
in  the  collecting  of  books,  and  the  encouragement  of  science; 


CHAP.  III.    CHARLEMAGNE  AND  IIAROON  ER  RASHEED.  239 

and  from  the  scliools  established  by  them  proceeded  chiefly 
the  medicine,  physics,  and  metaphysics  of  Europe  during  the 
middle  ages.  But  the  poets,  the  orators,  and  the  historians 
of  the  Grecian  republics,  never  learned  to  speak  the  language 
of  Mohammedan  despotism. 

In  the  reign  of  Al-Mamoon,  Crete  and  Sicily  were  con-  823 
quered  by  the  Moslems.  A  piratical  fleet  of  ten  or  twenty 
gaLeys  from  Andalusia  entered  Alexandria  at  the  solicitation 
of  a  rebellious  faction.  They  spared  neither  friends  nor  foes ; 
they  pillaged  the  city,  and  it  required  the  forces  and  the  pres- 
ence of  the  khalif  Al-Mamoon  to  expel  them.  They  ravaged 
the  islands  to  the  Hellespont.  The  fertility  and  riches"  of 
Crete  attracted  them :  they  invaded  it  with  forty  galleys. 
They  entered  and  pillaged  the  country ;  but  as  they  returned 
to  their  vessels,  they  found  them  in  flames  by  the  orders  of 
their  chief,  who  exhorted  them  to  seize  and  keep  the  fertile 
land.  They  obeyed  from  necessity,  the  island  submitted,  and 
for  138  years  their  depredations  harassed  the  eastern  em- 
pire. 

A  youth  had  stolen  a  nun  from  a  cloister  in  Sicily,  He  wa«  827 
sentenced  to  the  loss  of  his  tongue.  He  fled  to  Africa,  and 
exhorted  the  Arabs  to  invade  his  country.  They  landed,  in 
number,  700  horse,  and  10,000  foot  They  were  repulsed  be- 
fore the  walls  of  Syracuse,  and  reduced  to  great  straits,  when 
they  received  a  reinforcement  from  Spain.  The  western  part 
of  the  island  was  quickly  reduced,  and  Palermo  became  the 
Saracenic  capital.  Fifty  years  elapsed  before  Syracuse  sub-  879 
mitted,  after  a  siege  worthy  of  her  old  renown.  The  Gre- 
cian language  and  religion  were  eradicated  throughout  the 
is  and.  From  the  ports  of  Sicily  and  Africa  the  Mohamme- 
dan fleets  issued  to  ravage  and  pillage  the  cities  and  prov- 
inces of  Italy. 

While  the  Arabs  were  engaged  in  tlie  conquest  of  Sicily,  Bio 
one  of  their  fleets  entered  the  Tiber,  and  the  Moslems  plun- 
dered the  temples  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul.  Fortunately 
for  the  Romans,  their  pope  died,  <and  Leo  IV.,  a  man  of  the 
old  Roman  spirit,  was  chosen  to  succeed.  By  his  care  the 
city  was  fortified,  and  an  alliance  formed  with  Gaieta,  Na- 
ples, and  Salerno.  Soon  after,  a  large  fleet  of  Saracens  came 
from  Africa,  and  cast  anchor  before  the  Tiber.  The  allies  of  84;: 
the  pope  soon  appeared  ;  the  engagement  commenced,  and  a 
tempest  finally  decided  it  in  favor  of  the  Christians.  The 
Saracen  fleet  was  utterly  destroyed,  and  those  who  escaped 
to  shore  were  slaughtered,  or  reduced  to  slavery. 


240  HISTORY  OF  TUE  WOBLD  PAET  U. 

CHAP.  IV. 

DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES  OF  THE  EAST  AND  WEST. 

Empire  of  Charlemagne. 

814.  Charlemagne  was  succeeded  in  his  dominions  by  his  non 
Louie  the  Debonair,  or  good-natured.  His  eldest  son,  Pepin, 
had  died  before  him,  leaving  an  illegitimate  son,  Bernard,  who 
retained  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  which  his  father  had  held.  Re- 

317.  belling  against  his  uncle,  he  was  sentenced  to  the  loss  of  his 
eyes,  which  caused  his  death.  liOuis  associated  his  eldest 
son,  Lothaire,  in  the  empire,  and  conferred  Bavaria  and  Aqui- 
taine  on  his  two  other  sons ;  but  having  had  a  son,  Charles, 
by  his  second  wife,  Judith  of  Bavaria,  he  was  naturally  anxious 
to  provide  for  him  also.  This  could  only  be  done  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Lothaire  and  his  brothers.  They  rose  in  rebellion, 
and  deposed  their  father :  their  discord  caused  his  restoration. 

810.  At  his  death,  all  his  sons  were  in  arms  against  each  other. 
A  bloody  battle  at  Fontenoy,  in  Auxerre,  forced  them  to  come 
to  an  agreement,  and  the  empire  was,  by  the  treaty  of  Ver- 
dun, divided  among  them. 

843.  In  this  partition,  Lothaire  got  Italy,  Provence,  and  the 
country  running  along  tlie  Rliine,  afterwards  called  Lorraine. 
Louis  had  all  the  German  dominions  eastward  of  the  territo- 
ries of  liOthaire ;  and  Charles,  surnamed  the  Bald,  had 
France.  Pepin,  tlieir  nephew,  had  Aquitaine,  which  his  father 
had  held ;  of  this  he  was  afterwards  robbed  by  his  uncle 
Charles. 

855.  Lothaire,  filled  with  remorse  for  his  rebellions  against  his 
father,  retired  to  a  convent.     His  three  sons  took  arms  to  di- 

Si39.  vide  their  inheritance.  By  the  treaty  of  Orbe  (in  the  Vaudois,) 
Louis  got  the  crown  of  tlie  Cffisars,  Italy,  and  Rhfetia;  Lo- 
thaire 11.,  Burgundy,  Alsatia,  and  Lorraine ;  Charles  had 
Provence. 

fi88.  Lothaire  II.  dying  the  victim  of  a  lawless  amour,  without 
legitimate  issue,  his  two  uncles  made  a  treaty  of  partition  of 
his  dominions,  which  was  finally  decided  in  favor  of  the  king 

879.  of  Germany.     Lothaire   II.    had   already  divided   with  his 

863   brother,  Louis  II.,  the  dominions  of  Charles  of  Provence,  who 

87a  had  died  without  heirs ;  and  on  the  death  of  Louis  II.  Rhaetia 
came  to  the  king  of  Germany ;  but  his  younger  brother,  the 
king  of  France,  contrived  to  make  himself  master  of  Italy 
and  the  imperial  crown. 

g7g  The  two  brothers  soon  died.  Louis  the  Stammerer  suc- 
ceeded his  fether,  Charles  the  Bald ;  but  followed  him  to  the 
tomb  within  half  a  year  after  his  accession.     The  legitimacy 


iiJ'ii'l':  . 


I  -fl^juj^^j! 


CHAP.  rV.        DISSOLUTION  OP  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES.  243 

of  his  children  was  doubted ;  and  in  a  council  of  Burgundian 
bishops,  held  at  Geneva,  the  sovereignty  of  that  country  was 
offered  to  Boson,  who  was  married  to  Imogene,  daughter  of  ^  „ 
Louis  II.,  and  he  was  crowned  king  of  Burgundy"  by  the  879 
archbishop  at  Lyons. 

Charles  the  Fat,  the  son  of  Louis  of  Germany,  united  Italy  880 
to  his  German  dominions ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  elder  sons 
of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  and  the  minority  of  their  brother 
Charles  the  Simple,  he  was  made  king  of  France,  and  Boson 
received  his  kingdom  of  him  as  a  fief  The  empire  waa  now 
once  more  under  one  head ;  but  Charles  becoming  deranged, 
he  was  deposed,  and  the  unity  of  the  empire  of  the  Franks  8Sti 
dissolved  for  ever. 

The  German  dominions  of  Charles  were  taken  possession 
of  by  Arnulf,  the  illegitimate  son  of  his  brother  Carloman,  a 
prince  deeply  imbued  with  the  best  spirit  of  the  Carlovingi- 
ans;  but  he  died,  leaving  a  son  of  only  seven  years.  Eudes, 
count  of  Paris,  which  he  had  gallantly  defended  against  the 
Normans,  was  chosen  king  of  France ;  but  on  his  death  it 
came  to  the  rightful  but  incapable  heir,  Charles  the  Simple. 
After  the  death  of  Boson,  two  kings  reigned  in  Burgundy ; 
his  son  Louis,  and  Rodolph,  son  of  the  powerful  Count  Con- 
rad, and  that  kingdom  was  divided,  never  to  be  reunited.  In 
Italy,  Widon,  duke  of  Spoleto,  and  Berenger,  duke  of  Friuli, 
contended  with  each  other  for  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Lombards,  and  discord  and  turbulence  agitated  the 
whole  country. 

Such  was  the  internal  state  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne 
at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century :  externally  it  was  harassed 
by  the  Arabs,  the  Hungarians,  and  the  Northmen. 

The  Hungarians. 

Beyond  the  Ural  mountains  a  tribe  of  Turks,  it  is  thought, 
had  intermixed  with  the  Finns,  the  original  race  of  Northern 
Asia  and  Europe.  Pressed  on  from  the  East  by  other  tribes 
set  in  motion  by  war  or  want,  they  broke  up  their  camps,  and 
advanced  towards  the  West.  They  forced  their  way  through 
the  Russian  tribes,  penetrated  the  passes  of  Mount  Krapak, 
•and  spread  themselves  over  Pannonia,  their  future  country. 
They  called  and  still  call  themselves  Majars:  by  the  Euro- 
peans they  were  termed  Turks  and  Hungarians.  Their  gov- 
ernment had  been  hitherto  administered  by  a  council  of  Voi- 
vodes,  or  hereditary  chiefs ;  they  now  chose  a  sfvereign  in 
the  person  of  Almus,  the  father  of  Arpad. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne  had  extended  *o  Transylva 
nia.     The  king  of  the  Moravians,  who  dwelt  in  we8tf>m 


244  HISTORY  OV  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

Hungary,  refused  obedience  to  Amulf,  king  of  Germany, 
and  even  invaded  his  dominions.  Unable  tx)  reduce  him, 
V.  D  Arnulf  invited  the  aid  of  the  Hungarians,  and  the  Moravian 
WO  prince  was  speedily  humbled.  Arnulf  being  succeeded  by 
his  infant  son  Louis  IV.,  all  restraint,  which  gratitude  or  fear 
had  laid  on  the  Hungarians,  was  removed.  They  rushed 
into  and  wasted  Bavaria,  overthrew  the  Christians  at  Augs> 
burg,  swept  over  Swabia  and  Franconia,  spread  to  the  Baltic, 
and  laid  the  city  of  Bremen  in  ashes.  During  a  period  of 
more  than  thirty  years  Germany  paid  tribute  to  these  bar- 
barians. 

The  Hungarians  passed  the  Rhine,  and  ravaged  southern 
France  to  the  P3rrenees.  Italy  attracted  them :  they  encamp- 
ed on  the  Brenta;  but,  dreading  the  strength  of  the  country 
they  asked  permission  to  retire.  The  king  of  Italy,  Beren 
ger,  proudly  refused,  and  the  lives  of  20,000  men  were  the 
penalty  of  his  rashness.  Pavia  was  soon  in  flames,  and  all 
Italy,  to  the  point  of  Reggio,  was  ravaged.  The  Bulgarians, 
a  Slavonic  tribe,  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
they  formed  the  north-western  barrier  of  the  eastern  empire. 
Their  resistance  was  overcome,  and  the  rapid  bands  of  the 
Hungarians  were  soon  seen  before  the  gates  of  Constantino- 
ple.    By  arts  and  presents  they  were  induced  to  retire. 

The  ravages  of  the  Hungarians  extended  through  a  period 
of  nearly  half  a  century  (889 — 934).   The  valor  of  tlie  Saxon 
princes,  Henry  the  Fowler  and  his  son  Otho  the  Great,  at 
ength  delivered  Europe  from  them. 

The  Northmen. 

Scandinavia  had  been  originally  peopled  by  the  Finnic 
race.     In  very  remote  ages,  the  Goths,  whose  primitive  seat 
was,  probably,  the  great  central  mountain-range  of  Asia,  lad 
penetrated  thither,  and  expelled  the  less  warlike  Finns.   >Ve 
have  already  seen  tliem  recross  the  Baltic,  and  eventually 
establish  themselves  in  Spain  and  Italy.     Everywhere  they 
appear  as  conquerors.     In  Scandinavia  they  were  generally 
divided  into  small  independent  states :  their  land  was  poor 
they  had  little  agriculture  and  less  trade  to  occupy  them 
they  loved  war,  were  bold  mariners,  and  early  began  to  com- ' 
mit  depredations  on  each  other  and  on  strangers. 

In  this  period,  Gorm  the  Old  in  Denmark  and  Harold  p'air- 
hair  in  Norway  had  reduced  several  of  the  independent 
chieflams  of  these  countries,  and  established  their  respective 
monarchies.  Several  of  the  high-spirited  reguli  scorned  to 
own  as  masters  those  whom  they  had  regarded  as  equals; 
they  embarked  in  their  ships,  sought  and  colonized  the  dreary 


1/flAP.  IV         DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GREAT  EMPIREfl.  245 

shores  of  Iceland  or  the  Feroe,  Shetland,  and  Orkney  island*, 
whence  they  annually  ravaged  the  coasts  of  their  forsaken 
country.  By  these  and  by  the  youmjer  sons  of  the  Yarls 
{earls)  of  the  north,  piracy  was  graouaUy  committed  on  a 
more  extensive  scale  than  hitherto :  the  coasts  of  England 
and  France  were  now  richer  and  more  inviting,  and  annually 
the  fleets  of  tlie  Northmen  spread  desolation  along  them. 

Towards  the  time  of  Charlemagne  their  depredations  on 
these  countries  had  begun.  The  date  of  their  appearance 
in  England  is  the  year  787,  and  shortly  afterwards  they  rav- 
aged the  coast  of  France.  During  the  reign  of  Ijouis  they 
were  more  frequent  Ln  their  visits.  The  unsettled  state  of 
cue  country  in  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  favoring  them, 
they  grew  more  bold,  sailed  up  the  navigable  rivers,  and 
plundered  the  interior.  In  872  they  pillaged  Anglers ;  in 
?88  they  laid  siege  to  Paris,  which,  but  for  the  efforts  of 
Gosselin,  the  bishop,  and  Eudes,  the  count  of  that  city,  would 
have  been  their  prey.  But  the  number  and  boldness  of  their 
invasions  continually  increasing,  Charles  the  Simple  was 
finally  forced  to  cede  to  Rolf,  or  RoUo,  one  of  their  leaders,  a.  d 
the  large  province  suice  called  from  them  Normandy.  This  918 
was  a  wise  measure,  for  Rolf  and  his  subjects  embraced  the 
Christian  religion,  and  guarded  the  kingdom  from  farther  in- 
vasion. 

In  England,  where  they  were  called  Danes,  they  harassed 
the  coasts  in  a  similar  manner,  and  gradually  formed  perma- 
nent settlements.  Even  the  great  Alfred  was  obliged  to  yield 
to  them  the  kingdoms  of  Northumbria  and  East  Anglia,  and 
at  length  they  placed  monarchs  of  their  nation  on  the  throne 
of  England. 

But  the  Northmen  also  extended  their  name  and  their 
power  eastwards.  The  coasts  of  the  Baltic  were  among  the 
scenes  of  their  depredations ;  and  the  Russians,  a  Slavonian 
tribe,  who  had  subdued  the  original  natives  of  its  eastern 
ahores,  admired  and  feared  them.  As  allies  they  employed 
thetii  in  their  wars  against  the  tribes  of  the  interior.  These 
Varangians,  as  they  were  called,  like  their  Anglo-Saxon  86a 
brethren,  made  themselves  masters  of  tlie  people  that  invited 
their  aid,  and  Ruric,  one  of  their  chiefs,  established  a  dynasty 
which  endured  for  seven  hundred  years.  The  house  of  Ru- 
ric, at  first  depending  on  the  arms  of  the  Varangians  for  sup- 
port  and  safety,  new  adventurers  continually  flocked  to  them, 
and  were  rewarded  by  grants  of  lands  and  subjects;  but 
when  they  felt  themselves  firmly  seated,  tlicy  found  they 
could  dispense  with  these  expensive  auxiliaries,  and  Vladimir 
I.  recommended  to  them  the  service  of  the  Greek  empcrorfc 
21* 


246  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  Ii. 

KB  more  profitable.  They  followed  his  advice,  and  from  that 
period  till  the  end  of  the  empire,  the  Varangians  were  the 
faithful  guards  of  the  throne  of  the  Byzantine  Csesara 

France. 

The  power  and  authority  of  the  Carlovingian  princes  con- 
tinually decreased.  PVance  was  now  divided  among  several 
dukes  and  counts,  who,  though  acknowledging  themselvea 
vassals  of  the  crown,  exercised  all  the  rights  of  independent 
sovereigns.  Louis  IV.  and  Lothaire,  the  successors  of  Charlei 
the  Simple,  though  of  more  energetic  character,  were  unable 
to  restore  the  royal  dignity ;  and  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  a 
feeble  youth,  thougli  his  uncle  Charles  duke  of  Lorraine  was 
heir,  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  duke  of  France,  Orleans,  and 
Burgundy,  and  descended  from  Eudes  and  Robert  the  Strong, 
who  had  defended  Paris  from  the  Northmen,  had  himself 
^.  1).  crowned  king  at  Rheims,  and  when  Charles  of  Lorraine  came 
987.  in  arms  to  claim  his  right,  he  met  with  defeat  and  captivity. 
Thus,  afler  a  period  of  235  years  from  the  deposition  of 
Chilperic  (752)  to  the  coronation  of  Hugh  Capet  (987),  the 
Carlovingian,  like  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  expired  by  its 
own  feebleness.  Would  it  not  appear  that  great  families,  like 
fruit-trees,  become  with  time  effete,  and  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing the  similitude  of  those  powers  to  which  they  owed 
tlieir  original  elevation  1  So  little  reason  is  there  to  be  proud 
of  a  long  line  of  noble  ancestry  ! 

Hugh,  though  king  of  France,  was  in  reality  only  master 
of  his  own  demesnes,  and  feudal  superior  of  the  great  vassals 
of  the  crown.  Even  this  superiority  was  not  acknowledged 
south  of  the  I^oire,  and  in  his  own  fiefs  of  Paris  and  Orleans, 
which  by  his  accession  were  regarded  as  reunited  to  the 
crown,  he  and  his  successors  were  frequently  defied  and 
made  war  on  by  their  refractory  barons.  He  used  the  pre- 
caution of  getting  his  son  Robert  crowned  during  his  own 
lifetime,  a  plan  which  was  followed  by  his  two  successors, 
Robert  and  Henry  I.  Under  the  reign  of  Philip  L  the 
monarchy  was  grown  sufficiently  strong  to  dispense  with  this 
custom. 

Germany — House  of  Saxony. 

On  the  death  of  Louis,  son  of  Amulf,  the  German  branch 
of  tlie  Carlovingians  was  extinct.  Charles  the  Simple,  king 
of  France,  was  doubtless  of  that  race ;  but  the  present  situa- 
tion of  Germany  demanded  a  sovereign  of  more  energetic 
character.  The  Germans  were  divided  into  five  nations, 
Franks,  Swabians,  Bavarians,  Saxons,   Lorrainers.     These 


e 

o 
Q 


t4 
U 


'fMM 


CHAP.  249 

nations  met  to  appoint  a  successor,  and  the  choice  of  the  as-  ^  ^ 
serably  fell  upon  Conrad  of  Franconia,  descended  through  911 
females  from  Charlemagne. 

Conrad  did  not  long  enjoy  his  dignity.  Feeling  the  neces- 
sity there  was  for  the  sceptre  being  grasped  by  a  vigorous 
hand,  he  sought  not  to  perpetuate  it  in  his  own  family ;  but 
when  dying,  he  recommended,  instead  of  his  brother,  Henry 
duke  of  Saxony,  also  descended  on  the  female  side  from 
Charlemagne,  to  the  choice  of  tlie  electors. 

Henry,  sumamed  the  Fowler,  was  son  of  Otho,  who  had  SIS' 
reduced  Thuringia,  and  extended  his  dominicn  to  the  Elbe. 
This  able  and  politic  prince  was  at  first  obliged  to  continue 
the  tribute  to  the  Hungarians ;  but  he  surrounded  the  hitherto 
open  towns  and  villages  with  walls  and  ditches,  obliged  every 
tenth  man  in  each  district  to  reside  in  them,  gave  them  privi- 
leges, and  encouraged  industry  and  arts  of  every  kind  :  the 
courts  of  justice  were  held  in  them,  and  they  were  the  de- 
positories of  a  third  of  the  produce  of  the  lands  of  tiie  disiricL 
He  established  the  march  of  Meissen  against  the  Slaves,  and 
erected  bishoprics  there  for  their  conversion.  Thus  preparea, 
when  the  years  of  truce  with  the  Hungarians  were  expired ; 
he  suffered  them  to  come  with  arms  to  demand  tribute ;  and 
he  rose  from  his  bed  of  sickness  to  meet  them,  and  drove  934 
them  out  of  his  dominions  with  slaughter. 

On  the  death  of  Henry,  the  princes  and  people  assembled  y.if< 
at  Aachin,  and  elected  his  son  Otho,  deservedly  styled  the 
Great  It  being  a  principle  of  the  German  empire,  that  an 
emperor  should  neither  retain  a  fief  nor  add  one  to  Uie  domain, 
Otho  bestowed  Saxony  on  Herman,  a  brave  warrior ;  but  he 
sought  to  indemnify  himself  by  granting  archbishoprics  and 
dukedoms  to  his  own  family ;  a  policy  that  availed  him  but 
little,  as  they  were  frequently  in  rebellion  against  him. 

In  the  discord  that  pervaded  Italy  at  this  period,  Adelaide, 
widow  of  Lothaire,  son  of  Hugh  of  Provence,  who  had  been 
king  of  Italy,  invoked  the  aid  of  Otho  against  Berenger  II., 
who  had  seized  on  the  throne.  Otho  crossed  tlie  Alps,  married 
Adelaide,  and  Berenger  did  homage  to  him  for  his  kingdom.  952 
Troubles  afterwards  breaking  out  in  tliat  country,  Otho,  at 
tlie  call  of  Pope  John  XII.,  ajrain  descended  from  tJie  Alps, 
deposed  Berenger,  and  was  crowned  by  the  Lombards.  The 
next  year  he  visited  Rome,  and  was  there  received  and 
crowned  as  Charlemagne  had  been.  But  the  pope,  seeing 
ihe  power  of  his  ally,  sought  to  raise  up  enemies  against  him. 
Otho  sent  ambassadors  to  complain,  and  at  last  came  himself 
to  Rome.  The  pope  fled,  and  the  people  swore  never  to  ro-  •..., 
ceive  a  pope  without  the  consent  of  Otho  and  his  succefisors 


250  HISTORY  OV  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

Three  days  after,  the  emperor  in  an  assembly  of  bishops  and 
nobles,  had  John  deposed,  and  Leo  VIII.  chosen  in  his  place. 
The  party  of  John  was,  however,  still  strong :  the  Romans 
rose  against  the  Germans  and  their  friends.  Otho  came  a 
third  time  to  Rome :  an  injured  husband  had  slain  John ; 
famine  forced  the  Romans  to  surrender ;  and  thus  originated 
the  right  of  the  emperor  to  nominate  the  pope. 

During  the  reign  of  Otho  I.  the  Hungarians,  assisted  by 
domestic  faction,  penetrated  to  the  heart  of  Flanders.     Al 
the  forces  of  Germany  and  all  the  aids  of  superstition  were 
arrayed  against  this  dreadful  enemy ;  and  the  neighborhood 
^  o  of  Augsburg,  which  some  years  before  had  witnessed  their 
,55.  triumpli,  now  beheld  the  final  ruin  of  the  Hungarian  might 
rf74.       Otho  II.,  son  of  Otho  the  Great,  married  Theophano,  step- 
daughter of  the   Byzantine    emperor,   Nicephorus  Phocas, 
who  made  over  to  him  all  the  imperial  rights  and  claims  on 
Lower  Italy.     Otho  was  an  able  prince ;  but  he  had  many 
enemies  to  contend  with,  and  sometimes  endured  the  mortifi 
cation  of  defeat 
383.      Otiio  III.,  educated  by  his  mother  TheophEino,  was  a  prince 
of  amiable  temper  and  cultivated  mind.     He  loved  to  reside 
in  Italy ;  but  the  turbulence  of  the  Romans  gave  him  con- 
tinued uneasiness  and  occupation.     During  his  minority  they 
rebelled  against  him  and  the  pope;  but  when  he  came  of 
age  he  besieged  and  took  the  city.     He  treated  it  with  se- 
verity, and  hung  the  consul  Crescentius,  the  leader  of  the 
popular  party. 
02.     Otho  dying  without  issue,  his  kinsman,  Henry,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  was  elected  to  the  vacant  dignity.     Henry  II.  was 
successful  in  his  foreign  wars.     He  passed  less  of  his  time  in 
Italy  than  his  predecessors  had  done.     With  him  ended  tlie 
IJ24.  Saxon  line  of  emperors. 

Italy. 

The  great  vassals  had  in  Italy  succeeded  in  making  them- 
selves independent  Of  these  the  principal  were  the  dukes 
of  Benevento,  Tuscany,  and  Spoleto,  the  marquises  of  Ivrea, 
Susa,  and  Friuli:  the  pope  ruled  the  turbulent  Romans: 
Apulia  and  Calabria  were  governed  by  the  Catapan  of  the 
eastern  emperors:  the  republics  of  Amalfi  and  Naples  ac- 
knowledged their  supremacy ;  and  Salerno  and  Capua  were 
under  their  ovAm  princes. 

When  the  Carlovingian  princes  had  lost  their  power,  the 
dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Friuli  contended  for  the  kingdom  oi 
Italy.  Berenger  of  Friuli  governed  with  the  title  of  king, 
but  amidst  continual  factions,  for  thirtv-six  vears.  H's  advcr 


CHAP.  IV.        DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES.  251 

saries  called  in  Rudolf  11.,  king  of  Bur^indy.     In  a  battle 
Berenger  defeated  him;  but  in  the  pursuit,  Boniface  of  Spo-  *.  c 
leto,  Rudoira  nephew,  fell  on  him ;  and  Rudolf  turning,  Be-  9'23 
renger  was  defeated,  and  soon  after  murdered.     Rudolf  waa 
now  made  king  of  Italy,  but  did  not  long  enjoy  his  crown. 
Hugh,  count  of  Provence,  who  had  driven  the  grandson  of 
Boson  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries,  laid  claim  to  Italy ;  and, 
supported  by  the  clergy  and  the  great,  he  forced  Rudolf  to  926 
resign,  and  accept  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  in  exchange. 
Hugh  reigned  over  and  oppressed  the  nobles  of  Italy  for  six- 
teen years.     Berenger  II.,  of  the  house  of  Ivrea,  succeeded, 
and  was  nearly  as  tyrannical ;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  aid 
of  Otho  the  Great  was  invoked  against  his  oppression,  and  ^-i^ 
the  German  monarchs  became  kings  of  Italy. 

The  dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Tuscany  generally  directed  the 
election  of  the  popes.  Virtue  and  piety  were  little  considered 
in  the  candidates :  political  motives  and  female  influence  de- 
cided each  election.  The  infamous  Theodora  and  her  daugh- 
ter Marozia  disposed  of  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  at  their  pleasure : 
mere  boys  were  chosen  :  sons  succeeded  their  fathers :  scanda- 
lous vices  disgraced  the  heads  of  the  church;  and  some  suffered 
shameful  deaths.  Among  the  charges  against  John  XII.  were 
several  wnich  would  disgrace  the  most  licentious  layman  in 
the  most  barbarous  age  of  history. 

The  duchy  of  Benevento  had  been  greatly  diminished  by 
the  formation  of  the  states  of  Salerno  and  Capua ;  and  at 
tliis  time  the  Normans  established  themselves  at  Aversa,  a 
town  given  to  them  by  the  duke  of  Naples.  The  Saracena 
possessed  Sicily,  and  had  settlements  in  Calabria. 

England. 

Egbert  had  united  all  England  under  one  sceptre ;  and,  in-  828 
ternal  warfare  being  thus  checked,  the  country  might  have 
advanced  in  civilization  and  the  arts  of  peace ;  but  the  Danes  832 
now  began  to  visit  the  coasts  with  large  fleets,  carrying  havoc 
and  desolation  wherever  they  appeared.     The  reigns  of  liis 
successors  are  chiefly  marked  by  their  struggles  with  these  87 
formidable  foes.     When   Alfred  mounted   the   throne,  they 
were  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  England.   This  monarch, 
one  of  the  ablest  that  ever  adorned  a  diadem,  spent  a  great 
part  of  his  reign  in  doubtful  conflict  with  them,  which  ended 
by  the  Danes  embracing  Christianity,  and  Alfred  ceding  to 
them  Northumbria  and  East  Anglia.     Peace  being  restored, 
the  wise  king  turned  all  his  thoughts  to  the  formation  of  such 
institutions  and  regulations  as  might  increase  the  power,  the 
wealth,  and  the  civilization  of  his  subjects.     He  establLihe*' 


252  msTORT  OF  the  world.  part  n. 

Bchools,  regulatcfl  the  police,  built  ships  of  war,  and  encour- 
ag^ed  trade  and  navigfation  Three  able  princes,  Edward, 
Athelstan,  and  Edmund,  pursued  the  victories  of  Alfred :  under 
them  the  monarchy  became  coextensive  with  the  present 
England ;  and  Edgar  the  Peaceable  was  the  most  powerful 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings. 

The  Danes  still  continued  their  hostilities.  The  successors 
of  Edgar  were  feeble,  the  great  subjects  intractable,  the  Danes 
in  the  kingdom  numerous :  the  custom  was  introduced  of 
buying  them  off,  and  then  of  employing  the  Normans  against 
tbem.  In  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.  the  savage  and  fatal  mea- 
sure of  murdering  the  Danes  throughout  England  was  adopted. 
Filled  with  rage  at  this  base  treachery,  Sueno,  king  of  Den- 
mark, invaded  and  conquered  the  kingdom.  His  son  Canute 
(Knut)  was  king  of  both  Denmark  and  England,  and  he  is 
justly  placed  in  the  list  of  great  princes.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  sons  Hardicanute  and  Harold.  On  the  death  of  tlie 
last,  the  English  nation  returned  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  line,  in 
the  person  of  Edward,  surnamed  the  Confessor,  an  amiable 
3Ut  feeble  pripce. 

An  injudicious  practice  had  been  introduced  of  giving  the 
government  of  large  provinces,  the  former  kingdoms,  to  par- 
ticul*r  noblemen^  Hitherto  Ocach  shire  had  been  governed  by 
its  alderman,  and  the  moderate  size  of  a  shire  prevented  its 
governor  acquiring  any  very  formidable  power.  But  a  man 
who  wielded  the  forces  of  such  a  state  as  Mercia  or  Wessex, 
might  easily  defy  his  sovereign.  Godwin,  a  man  of  ability, 
had  gained  for  himself  and  his  sons  the  government  of  seve- 
ral provinces;  and  on  the  death  of  Edward,  his  son  Harold,  a 
man  of  many  noble  qualities,  had  himself  chosen  king  by  the 
Witena-gemot,  or  great  council  of  the  nation,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  lawful  heir.  He  was  opposed  by  his  own  brother 
Tosti,  by  the  king  of  Norway,  and  by  a  still  more  formidable 
rival,  William  duke  of  Normandy.  The  former  two  he  van- 
quished :  in  the  battle  of  Hastings  he  lost  to  the  latter  botl^ 
life  and  crown. 

Russia. 

Russia  under  her  Scandinavian  princes  became  known  to 
Europe.  The  Russians  appeared  at  Constantinople  at  first  as 
traders,  exchangmg  the  furs,  hides,  bees'-wax  and  honey  of 
the  North  for  the  productions  and  manufactures  of  the  em- 
pire. Their  cupidity  was  excited,  and  they  sought  to  take  by 
force  the  wealth  of  which  they  got  but  scanty  supplies  by 
trade.  Their  fleets  repeatedly  assailed  Constantinople,  and 
their  armies  invaded  the  empire  and  Bulgaria.     Nicephorua 


I  Hiil 


CHAP.  IV.     DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES.  255 

fought  in  vain  against  them,  but  the  heroic  John  Zimisces 
vindicated  the  honor  of  the  empire  and  the  wrongs  of  Bulga- 
ria, and  the  Russian  grand-duke  Svatoslof  and  his  army,  sur-  ^  u 
rounded  by  the  galleys  and  the  legions,  was  forced  to  eurren-  973. 
der,  and  retire  on  honorajle  terms, 

Olga,  the  mother  of  Svatoslof,  a  princess  of  mind  as  mas-  955 
culine  as  the  Catherines  or  Elizabeths,  had  come  to  Constan- 
tinople and  received  baptism.  At  Kiov  and  Novogorod  she 
persisted  in  her  new  faith.  Her  grandson  Vladimir,  at  first  a  980 
zealqjis  votary  of  the  gods  of  his  country,  at  length  embraced 
the  religion  of  his  grandmotlier,  and  a  marriage  with  Anna, 
sister  of  Theophano,  wife  of  Otho  II.,  confirmed  him  in  his 
new  faith  Olga  had  sought  to  improve  her  country:  she 
made  roaas,  built  bridges,  and  introduced  social  order.  Vladi- 
mir erected  schools,  opened  new  sources  of  trade,  had  rela- 
tions with  foreign  courts,  was  active  in  tin'  iiitniduction  of 
the  Christian  religion, — was,  in  fact,  the  I'ncr  of  the  tenth 
century, 

Yaroslof,  son  of  Vladimir,  was  the  legislator  of  Russia.  1015 
He  caused  books  to  be  translated  from  the  Greek.  He  was 
the  ally  of  the  German  emperors  against  the  Hungarians, 
and  his  daughter  Anna  was  married  to  Henry  I.  of  France, 
Alexius  Commenus,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  sent  the  impe- 
rial insignia  to  the  grandson  of  Yaroslof,  Vladimir  Monoma- 
chus,  and  Kiov  swore  always  to  choose  the  Tsar  from  his 
house. 

Constantinople. 

Theophilus,  son  of  Michael  the  Stammerer,  was  a  virtuous  82i» 
prince,  and  an  enemy  to  the  images.  On  his  death  his  widow 
Theodora,  like  Irene,  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Michael  842 
III.,  finally  re-established  them.   Michael  was  a  weak  prince; 
but  his  uncle  Ctesar  Bardas  administered  the  empire  with  867 
prudence  and   ability.     Basilius   murdered    them   both,  and 
mounted  the  throne.     His  government  was  vigorous  and  ac-  88t 
tive.    His  son  Leo  followed  his  ma.xinis.    The  sceptre  passed  911 
to  the  infant  son  of  Leo,  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus,  under 
whoso  name  first  liis  uncle  Alexander  and  then  his  nioflier 
Zoe  governed.    By  perjury  Romanus  Lacopenus  obtained  the  91  y 
direction  of  atfairs  ;  hut  he  guided  them  with  ability.     Con- 
Btantine,  apparently  devoted  to  books  and  wine,  managed  to 
deprive  Romanus  of  his  power,  iiiu!  became  sole  ruler.     Ro  9r>'.' 
manus  II.  reigned  after  him  with  little  credit. 

Nicephorus  Phocas  distinguished  iiim.-elf  in  war  nguinst 
the  Persians,  the  Saracens  of  Crete.  Hiifl  thf  Riis.>;ian.s.  liis 
successor,  John  Zinsisces,  was  the  coihjiMKtr  of  the  Hii.-.-ian  'ic'i 


256  BISTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

».  D.  duke  Svatoslof.  The  mns  of  Romanus  11.,  Basil  II.  and  Con- 
975.  BtantiTie  VIII.,  reigned  in  conjunction,  with  reputation.   Basil 

completely  broke  the  power  of  the  Bulgarians,  and  dying  after 
1025.  a  reign  of  fifty  years,  left  the  sole  dominion  to  his  brother, 

who  left  it  to  his  daughter  Zoe  and  her  husband,  the  patrio.an 
1028.  Romanus  Argyrus,  a  man  of  some  ability.    Romanus  was  un 

fortunate  in  a  battle  against  the  Saracens  at  Aleppo.  The 
!034  empress  fell  in  love  with  a  handsome  youth.     Romanus  was 

murdered,  and  her  favorite  raised  to  the  throne  under  tiie 

name  of  Michael  IV. ;  but,  goaded  by  remorse,  he  abandoned 

the  palace  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  convent.  The  empress 
041.  then  placed  his  cousin  Michael  Calaphates  on  the  throne. 

Finding  him  disobedient  to  her  will,  she  dethroned  and  blinded 
i042.  him,  and   then  gave  the  dignity  to  Constantine   Monoma- 

chus,  who  had  been  her  first  love,  who  governed  with  order 
1054.  and  regularity.     On  his  death,  Theodora,  the  sister  of  Zoe 

(now  dead)  seized  the  reigns  oi  government,  and  held  them 

1056.  for  a  short  time  with  no  steady  hand.  With  her  ended  the 
dynasty  of  Basil  I.,  which  had  occupied  the  throne  nearly  two 
centuries. 

Michael  VI.,  a  soldier,  was  chosen  emperor,  and  gave  one 
among  the  many  examples  there  are  of  the  unfitness  of  a 
man  for  the  supreme  station  who  may  have  been  distinguished 
in  an  inferior  one.     He  was  dethroned,  and  Isaac  Comnenus 

1057.  put  in  his  place.  Isaac  ruled  with  wisdom,  vigor,  and  justice; 
but  bodily  infirmity  made  him  retire  after  a  short  reign.  Con- 

1059.  stantine  Ducas,  his  successor,  was  just,  but  no  soldier.     His 

1068.  widow  married  and  raised  to  the  throne  Romanus  Diogenes, 

a  man  of  noble  mind  and  military  talent.    Ho  warred  against 

the  Seljookian  Turks ;  but  by  the  treachery  of  his  nobles  he 

fell  into  the  hands  of  the  sultan  Alp  Arslan,  by  whom  he  was 

honorably  treated  and  set  at  liberty.    On  his  return  he  found 

1071.  treachery,  revolt,  and  murder  awaiting  him.     Michael  VII., 

the  son  of  Ducas,  was  weak  and  incapable ;  he  was  the  slave 

of  a  vicious  minister,  and  he  took  orders,  and  attained  to  dig- 

1078.  nity  in  the  church.   Nicephorus  Botoniates  was  a  soldier,  but 

1081.  unfit  to  be  emperor.     He  gave  way  to  the  d3masty  of  the 

Comnenians,  with  whom  a  new  state  of  things  commenced. 

Decline  of  the  Arabian  Empire — Africa. 

789.  The  Abbasside  khalifs  had  never  possessed  Spain.  In  the 
reign  of  Haroon-er-Rasheed,  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Fatema, 
fled  from  Arabia  to  the  extreme  west,  and  declared  his  inde- 
pendence. His  son,  also  named  Edris,  built  the  city  of  Fez 
the  capital  of  a  state  which  soon  became  populous  and  flour 
ishing 


CHAP.  IV.     DISSOLUTION  OP  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES.  257 

During  the  reign  of  Edris  II.  of  Fez,  Ibrahim,  the  6on  of  *.  „ 
Aglab,  governor  of  Cairoan,  oneof  tlie  lieutenants  of  Haroon-  805 
er-Rasheed,  established  an  independent  dominion  in  the  an- 
cient territory  of  Carthage,  of  which  Tunis  became  the  capital. 

About  a  century  later,  Mahadee  Obeid  Allah,  a  real  or  pre-  908. 
tended  descendant  of  Fatema,  founded  a  state  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  of  which  the  city  of  Mahadiah,  built  by  him  on  a  pen- 
insula, running  out  into  the  Mediterranean,  was  the  capital. 
He  made  war  on  and  defeated  both  the  Aglabites  and  the 
Edrlsites,  whose  kingdoms  lay  to  the  west  of  his,  and  added 
their  territories  to  those  he  already  possessed, 

Moez-lad in- Allah,  tlie  great-grandson  of  Mahadee,  had  ^9 
wells  sunk  in  the  desert,  and  then  marched  an  army  to  Egypt, 
which  had  ceased  to  obey  the  khalifs.  He  took  possession  of 
that  country  with  little  opposition,  wiiere  he  founded  the  city 
of  Cairo  (Al  Cahira)  henceforth  its  capital.  His  reign  was 
one  of  mildness  and  gentleness.  Armies  conducted  by  skilful 
and  victorious  generals  conquered  Syria,  and  Dam.ascus  and 
Jerusalem  were  among  the  cities  which  obeyed  the  khalif  of 
Egypt,  whose  dynasty— the  Fatemite-  ruled  for  two  centu- 
ries from  the  Euphrates  to  the  deserts  of  Cairoan. 

Moez,  aware  of  the  impossibility  of  retaining  distant  prov-  971 
incea,  separated  by  sandy  deserts  from  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, wisely  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  seeking  to  retain  his 
conquests  on  the  north-western  coeist  of  Africa.  He  therefore 
gave  up  to  Yoossef  Belkin,  the  son  of  Zeiri,  the  western  con- 
quests of  Mahadee.  Zeiri  was  of  a  noble  Arab  family,  and 
had  headed  a  troop  of  warriors,  who  were  solely  devoted  to 
him.  His  dynasty— the  Zeirides— reigned  till  1148  over  the 
north-western  coast  during  177  years. 

A  prophet,  named  Abdallah,  rose  among  the  tribes  subject  l05b 
to  the  Zeirides.  He  taught  Islam  in  greater  purity.  His 
followers  became  numerous.  Under  the  command  of  Aboo 
Bekr,  son  of  Omar,  they  took  arms  to  spread  tlie  faitli,  and 
carried  on  successful  wars  against  the  princes  of  Fez,  Tan- 
gicrs,  and  the  other  states.  Yoossef,  the  successor  of  Aboo 
Bekr,  founded  Morocco  at  some  springs  of  water,  and  it  be- 
came during  his  lifetime  the  capital  of  a  state  reaching  to  the  ioC9 
Straita  of  Gibraltar.  Almoravites  was  the  appellation  of  the 
followers  of  Abdallah:  they  led  a  pastoral  life,  and  their 
princes  Yoossef  and  his  successors  were  both  powerful  and 
peaceable. 

Decline  of  the  Arabian  Empire — Asia. 

Thus  were  Spain,  Africa,  and  Syria  lost  to  the  house  of 
Abbas,  and  at  the  same  time  their  eastern  possessions  were 
•npidly  reduced  in  extent. 
22* 


258  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

4.  D.      Taher,  an  able  general,  had  essentially  served  Mamoon  in 

813.  the  contest  with  his  brother.  He  was  dismissed  in  honorable 
exile  to  command  in  the  province  of  Khorassan ;  but  here  he 
made  himself  independent,  and  his  descendants,  the  Taher- 
ites,  to  the  fourth  generation,  governed  that  province  with 
wisdom  and  justice. 

872.  The  Taherite  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  the  Suffaree 
founded  by  Yacoob  ben  Leis,  the  son  of  a  pewterer  in  Seistan 
(hence  the  name  Suffaree,)  who  abandoned  his  trade  for  that 
of  a  robber.  An  accident  gave  occasion  to  his  being  em- 
ployed by  the  prince  of  Seistan,  in  whose  service  he  led  an 
army  which  he  turned  against  his  master,  whom  he  sent  pris- 
oner to  Bagdad :  obtaining  in  reward  the  government  of  tha 
province,  he  gradually  made  himself  master  of  Khorassan, 
and  nearly  all  Persia.  The  khalif  instigated  Ismael  Samanee, 
a  Turkish  chief,  to  seize  on  Transoxiana.  Amer,  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Yacoob,  marched  against  him ;  but  was  de- 
feated, taken,  and  sent  to  Bagdad,  where,  after  some  years' 
confinement,  he  was  put  to  death.  Transoxiana,  Bulch,  Kho- 
rassan, and  Seistan  now  formed  the  dominions  of  the  Sama- 
nians. 

8'J2.  The  Arabian  princes  of  the  tribe  of  Hamadan  made  them- 
selves masters  of,  and  held  for  109  years  (892 — 1001)  Meso- 
potamia, with  the  cities  of  Mosul  and  Aleppo.  They  were 
extolled  by  their  poets  for  their  beauty  and  their  noble  quali- 
ties.    Their  history  presents  the  usual  series  of  crimes. 

J""  The  power  of  the  Samanee  princes  extended  over  the  north 
of  Persia.  The  south  obeyed  the  Dilemee,  so  called  from 
their  native  village  Dilem,  as  they  were  styled  Buyah  from 
one  of  their  ancestors.  A  fisher  of  Dilem,  Abul-Shujah-al- 
Buyah,  entered  the  service  of  the  governor  of  his  native  prov- 
ince. Under  the  conqueror  and  successor  of  that  governor 
Ali  Buyah,  the  son  of  Shujah,  rose  to  high  military  comiai  nd , 
and  he  defeated  Yacoot,  the  governor  of  Isfahan,  and  gaine*! 
thereby  great  wealth  and  reputation.  Ali  pursued  and  agaji 
defeated  Yacoot,  and  made  himself  master  of  Fars,  Kerman, 
Khuzistan,  and  Irak.  He  advanced  to  Bagdad,  and  obliged 
the  khalif  to  bestow  on  him  the  government  of  Fars  and  Irak, 
and  to  make  his  younger  brother  Ahmed  his  vizier ;  his  sec- 
ond brother  Hussun  acted  under  himself 

Ahmed  dethroned  the  khalif,  and  raised  Mothi  to  his  place 
over  whom  he  exercised  unlimited  authority  during  his  life 
Ali  dying,  universally  regretted,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Hussun,  who  left  his  authority  to  his  son,  the  able  and  excel 
lent  Azed-e-Dowlat,  who  united  in  his  person  the  offices  of 
vizier  to  the  khalif  and  viceroy  of  Fare  and  IraL 


jHAP.  IV.      DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GREAT  EMPIRES.  261 

After  the  death  of  Azed,  one  of  the  brightest  cliaractera 
•n  oriental  history,  the  power  of  the  Dilemee  gradually  de- 
clined. Mahmood  of  Ghizni  stripped  them  of  all  their  pos- 
sessions but  Fars  and  Kerman.  They  retained  these  and  the 
office  of  Ameer-ul-Omrah  {chief  of  the  nobles)  conferred  on 
Ali  Buyah,  which  gave  them  authority  over  the  country  round  x.  \ 
Bagdad,  till  that  capital  was  taken  by  Toghrul-beg-Seljookee.  1055 

Causes  of  the  Decline  of  the  Power  of  the  Khalifs. 

An  obvious  cause  of  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  of  tlie 
Arabs  was  its  extent,  the  consequent  distance  of  several  ol 
the  provinces  from  the  seat  of  empire,  and  the  absolute 
power  with  which  the  lieutenants  of  a  despot  must  be  in- 
vested. Hence  the  assumption  of  independence  waa  easy, 
the  means  of  punishing  slight ;  no  principle  of  loyalty  bind- 
ing the  subject  to  the  sovereign.  Thus  Spain  was  lost  at 
once,  Africa  speedily  afterwards. 

But  in  the  case  of  the  Abbas.sides  there  were  some  particular 
causes.  Like  their  predecessors,  their  title  was  bad.  The 
descendants  of  the  son-in-law  and  earliest  disciple  of  the 
prophet  were  naturally  regarded  as  having  a  better  claim  to 
the  khalifat  than  those  of  any  other  branch  of  the  family. 
The  rights  of  Ali's  family  were  still,  therefore,  openly  or 
secretly  maintained  by  a  numerous  party.  We  have  seen 
how  easily  Edris,  and  afterwards  Mahadee,  founded  empires. 
The  Fatemite  khalifs  of  the  latter  house  always  affected  to 
regard  themselves  as  the  rightful  successors  of  the  prophet. 
These  khalifs  were,  it  is  said,  at  the  head  of  a  secret  society, 
whose  object  was  the  overthrow  of  tlte  khalifat  of  Bagdad; 
and  its  missionaries  continually  pervjided  the  dominions  of 
the  house  of  Abbas,  making  convertij  to  the  claims  of  Ali. 
The  various  sectaries  who  aimed  at  private  aggrandizement 
frequently  put  forward  these  claims,  and  thereby  attracted 
followers.  The  Ismailitcs  were  a  sect  founded  expressly  on 
this  principle,  and  out  of  them  arose  the  society  of  the  As- 
sassins, one  of  the  most  dreadful  scourges  of  the  East 

Yet  the  house  of  Abbas  might,  perhaps,  have  retained  the 
empire  of  Asia,  were  it  not  that,  like  tlie  contemporary  Car- 
lovingians,  the  Abbassides  gradually  degenerated,  and  fell 
into  weakness  and  incapacity,  and  at  the  same  time  formed  a 
priEtorian  guard.  Motasscm,  the  eighth  khalif  of  this  family, 
with  whom  its  glory  c.vpircd,  perceiving  how  the  valor  and 
virtues  of  the  .Arabs  had  decayed,  adopted  the  plan  of  forming 
a  body-guard  from  the  martial  hordes  of  tiie  Turks  who  dwelt 
beyond  tlie  Jihon.  Their  youth;?,  taken  in  war  or  purcliased 
as  slaves,  were  trained  to  arms,  and  instructed  in  the  prin- 


84 


262  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOBLD.  PAKT  n 

ciples  of  Islam.  Motassem  collected  50,00(  of  them  around 
his  throne  at  Bagdad.  Their  tumultuous  conduct  incensed 
the  citizens,  and  he  and  they  retired  to  Samara,  a  city  twelve 
leagues  from  Bagdad,  on  the  Tigris.     Motawakkel,  the  son 

1-  o.  of  Motassem,  was  a  cruel  tyrant :  he  favored  and  relied  solely 

"'''^-  on  his  Turkish  guards,  and  they  murdered  him  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  son  Mostanser,  whose  remorse  for  his  crime 
abridged  his  life.  The  guards  had  now  felt  their  own  power : 
their  numbers  were  kept  up  by  regular  recruiting  in  Turkis- 

Si\2.  tan :  they  forced  Mosteyoo,  uncle  of  Mostanser,  to  whom 
they  gave  the  throne,  to  surrender  to  them  the  right,  not 
only  of  nominating  their  own  commander,  but  the  emir-ul- 
omra  of  the  empire.  They  treated  the  commander  of  the 
faithful  with  every  indignity  and  insult ;  and  these  unhappy 
princes  were  by  them  beaten  with  clubs,  dragged  by  the  feet, 
and  exposed  almost  naked  to  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun. 

W7.  Mohtadi  Billah  made  a  bold  effort  to  curb  them.  He  seized 
Moones,  their  commander,  one  of  his  ablest  generals,  and 
when  they  assailed  the  palace,  flung  his  head  out  to  them. 
They,  however,  burst  in,  and  the  unhappy  khalif  expired  be- 
neath their  feet.  His  brother  and  successor  Moktader,  to 
rid  himself  of  them,  placed  them,  as  his  best  troops,  on  the 
different  frontiers,  and  thereby  hastened  their  becoming  in- 
dependent. 

86».  A  Turkish  governor  of  Egypt,  named  Tooloon,  had  some 
time  before  made  himself  independent.  He  had,  it  is  said, 
found  a  large  treasure,  and  thereon  raised  his  power.  His 
son  and  successor  Ahmed  was  the  father  of  the  poor,  but  in- 
exorable in  the  punishment  of  crime,  and  18,000  persons 
were  executed  during  his  reign.  The  commander  of  the 
faithful,  Motedad,  married  Cotr-en-neda  (Dewdrop)  the  daugh- 
ter of  Khemeruyah,  son  of  Ahmed,  and  on  her  road  to  Bag- 
dad, she  found  each  evening  a  tent  splendid,  and  furnished 
as  the  palace  of  her  father,  prepared  for  her  reception.  Ha- 
roon,  the  grandson  of  Ahmed,  fell  in  defence  of  his  kingdom, 

S05  and  with  him  ended  the  dynasty  of  the  Tooloonides.  Egypt 
was  reunited  to  the  dominions  of  the  khalif  Mohtadi  Billah. 
But  twenty-nine  years  afterwards  another  Turk,  Akhsheed, 

934.  separated  it  anew,  and  it  never  again  obeyed  the  khalifs  of 
Bagdad. 

The  Gasnevides. 

997.  Sebuktajee,  a  slave  of  a  minister  of  the  Saraanians,  by 
valor  and  prudence  obtamed  tlie  government  of  the  city  and 
district  of  Gasna  or  Ghizni.  His  son  Mahmood  gradually 
extended  his  power  irom  the  Caspian  to  the  Indus,  and  the 


CHAP.  IV.      DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  (MIEAT  EMPIRES.  263 

Wialif  honored  him  with  the  title  of  Sultan.  The  power  of 
Mahmood  increased  witli  eastern  rapidity.  India  attracted 
his  cupidity  :  since  the  days  of  Seleucus  Nicator  she  had  not 
been  penetrated  to  any  extent  by  a  foreign  conqueror :  she 
abounded  in  treasure ;  her  people  were  unwarlike :  Mahmood 
and  his  Moslems  poured  down  on  her  from  her  northern  fron- 
tier :  he  reached  the  Ganges ;  resistance  was  ineffectual ;  all 
submitted.  His  religious  zeal  was  displayed  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  idols  of  India,  and  an  incredible  treasure  rewarded 
his  holy  warfare.  Twelve  times  did  the  Gasnevide  monarch 
march  to  the  pillage  of  this  rich  and  feeble  country. 

Spain. 

Family  dissensions  and  the  revolt  of  governors  diminished 
Lhe  power  of  the  dynasty  founded  by  Abd-er-rahman,  and 
the  Christians  gradually  extended  their  possessions  from  the 
jiountains  to  the  plain.  ^_  n 

After  a  contest  of  two  hundred  years  a  Christian  kingdom  914 
was  founded  under  Ordofio,  of  which  Leon  was  the  capital 
The  laws  of  the  Goths  were  re-established ;  and  this  was  the 
commencement  of  the  heroic  age  of  Spain,  when  she  put 
forth  every  manly  virtue,  and  fought  with  religious  zeal, 
patriotic  feeling,  and  knightly  honor. 

A  county  had  beep  formed  at  Burgos  by  Fernando  Gon-  933. 
zales.  On  the  failure  of  his  posterity  it  was  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Castile  in  favor  of  Fernando,  son  of  Sanchez,  1033 
king  of  Navarre.  This  Last  kingdom  had  been  formed  by  the 
descendants  of  the  valiant  Gascon,  count  Acnor,  who  had 
(831)  crossed  the  Pyrenees  to  conquer  lands  from  the  infidels. 
They  had  also  made  themselves  masters  of  the  fruitful  plains 
of  Catalonia. 

At  the  time  when  the  empire  of  the  khalifs  of  Cordova 
was  falling  to  pieces,  almost  the  entire  of  the  Christian  states 
were  united  under  Sanchez  of  Navirre.  But  he  again  sepa- 
rated them,  giving  only  Navarre  to  his  eldest  son,  leaving 
Castile  to  Fernando,  who  had  acquired  Leon  by  marriage, 
and  forming  in  the  mountains  about  the  little  stream  of  the 
Aragon,  the  kingdom  so  denominated  for  his  natural  son  Ra- 
mirez; a  kingdom  which,  by  wise  laws  and  able  rulers, 
eclipsed  all  in  the  Peninsula. 

Bernhard,  of  the  family  of  the  dukes  of  Aquitaine,  whom 
Charlemagne  had   made  count  of  Barcelona,  became,  in  a  864. 
great  measure,  independent:  his  son  VVinfred  became  com- 
pletely so.    Count  Raymond  Berenger  obtained  by  marriage  1137 
(he  kingdom  of  Aragon. 

All  these  sovereigns  pressed  on  the  Mohammedan  emirs. 


264  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11 

A  u.  who  were   less  united.     The  latter,  unable  to  withstand. 

1086.  called  over  Yoossef-ben-Takhfin  the  Almoravide,  who  hm! 
just  founded  the  empire  of  Morocco.  He  came,  repulsed  tlie 
Christians ;  and  all  Spain,  south  of  the  mountains  of  Cajstile, 
wag  united  under  his  dominion. 


CHAP.  V. 

INCREASE   OF   THE   PAPAL   POWER. 

Italy. — The  Nortnans. 

After  the  Normans  had  embraced  Christianity,  they  be 
came  distinguished  for  their  devotion  according  to  the  fashior 
of  the  times.  Of  this,  pilgrimage  formed  a  principal  part, 
and  the  variety  and  the  dangers  of  it  were  pleasing  to  tht 
valiant  Normans.    On  a  visit  of  a  number  of  them  to  the  cav- 

1016.  em  of  Mount  Garganus,  in  Apulia,  they  were  accosted  by  8 
citizen  of  Bari,  who  held  out  large  hopes  if  they  would  assist 
in  expelling  the  Greeks  from  Italy.  They  consented,  and 
the  following  year,  a  large  body  passed  the  Alps  in  small  par 
ties,  and  united  in  Apulia.  They  were  unsuccessful  against 
the  Greek  troops ;  but  they  kept  together,  and  were  employed 
by  the  neighboring  princes  in  their  quarrels.     The  duke  of 

1029.  Naples  built  for  them  the  town  of  Aversa.  Numbers  of  every 
nation  flocked  to  their  standard.  Count  Rainulf  was  their 
commander. 

1038.  The  Saracens  had  now  held  Sicily  for  two  centuries.  They 
were  fallen  into  disunion,  had  throvni  off  their  allegiance  to 
the  king  of  Tunis :  each  petty  chief  aimed  at  independence. 
The  court  of  Byzantium  was  always  anxious  to  recover  the 
island :  the  present  opportunity  seemed  favorable.  Two 
brothers  of  the  Saracens  being  at  enmity,  one  applied  for  the 
aid  of  the  Christians.  The  Grecian  governor  of  Italy  was 
directed  to  engage  the  Normans,  and  five  hundred  of  their 
knights  were  enrolled.  On  landing  in  Sicily,  the  Saracens 
were  found  united ;  but  nothing  could  resist  Norman  valor, 
and  thirteen  cities  and  a  great  part  of  the  island  were  re- 
duced to  the  obedience  of  the  emperor.  In  the  division  of  the 
spoil  the  Normans  were  unjustly  treated,  and  on  their  return 

1040.  to  Italy  they  invaded  Apulia,  to  indemnify  themselves.  Their 
whole  forces  were  700  horse  and  500  foot;  the  imperial 
troops  are  stated  at  60,000 ;  yet,  in  the  course  of  three  years, 
the  empire  retained  only  the  towns  of  Bari,  Otranto,  Brundu- 

1043.  sium,  and  Tarentum.     The  Normans  divided  their  conquests 


1.  Shobk  Lapiandkb.      2,  3.  Mountain  Laplan-debs. 


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CHAP.  V.  INCREASE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  267 

into  twelve  districts,  over  each  of  which  was  a  count,  one  of 
whom,  under  the  title  of  count  of  Apulia,  presided  in  tlieir 
councils,  held  in  the  town  of  Melfi.  The  first  count  of  Apulia 
was  William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  equally  distinguished  in  the 
virtues  of  war  and  peace. 

The  rapacity  and  injustice  of  the  Normans  made  them 
hated.  The  court  of  Byzantium  sought  to  deliver  Italy  from 
them,  by  inducing  them  to  take  a  settlement  in  Asia,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Persia ;  but  the  wily  Normans  saw  through  and 
rejected  the  imperial  munificence.  The  Byzantine  agent 
Arg)rrus  thus  foiled,  determined  on  force,  and  a  league  waa 
formed  between  the  pope  Leo  IX.  and  the  emperors  of  the  *  a. 
East  and  West,  against  them.  The  pope  travelled  to  Ger-  1M9 
many  to  seek  aid.  Argyrus  caused  a  number  of  the  Normans 
to  be  assassinated.  On  the  return  of  the  pope,  with  a  small 
band  of  German  auxiliaries,  a  force  considerable  in  number 
was  collected.  The  Normans  were  deserted  by  all;  they 
could  only  muster  8000  horse ;  they  were  reduced  to  great 
straits  for  want  of  provisions,  were  dispirited  by  famine  and 
superstition,  and  offered  to  submit  The  alternative  of  death 
or  exile  was  given  by  the  pope : — they  resolved  to  die  as  sol- 
diers, engaged  the  enemy,  defeated  them,  and  took  the  pope 
prisoner  at  Civitella.  The  warriors  knelt  and  implored  his 
forgiveness;  the  well-meaning  pontiff  lamented  his  error:  by  io5S 
his  right,  derived  from  the  grant  of  Constantine,  he  bestowed 
on  them  their  present  and  future  conquests  in  Apulia  and 
Calabria,  as  a  fief  of  the  holy  see,  which  relation  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  has  ever  since  retained. 

Tancred  de  Hauteville,  a  valvassor  of  Normandy,  had 
tw  elve  str.s ,  and  his  patrimony  was  small :  ten  of  them,  at 
various  times,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  joined  the  Normans  in 
Apulia  Robert,  surnamed  Guiscard,  (Wizard  7)  the  fourth 
of  them,  soon  became  distinguished.  He  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  Civitella,  and  gained  there  the  prize  of  valor.  His 
three  elder  brotliers,  William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  Drogo,  and 
Humphry,  had  successively  attained  to  the  rank  of  count  of 
Apulia.  On  the  death  of  the  last  named,  leaving  his  sons 
minors,  their  claims  were  postponed  to  those  ( f  Robert  and 
he  was  chosen  count  of  Apulia.  The  pope  Nicholas  conferred 
on  him  and  his  posterity  the  title  of  duke  of  Apulia ;  but  he  1060 
waited  till  the  next  campaign  had  achieved  the  conquest  of 
Reggio  and  Cosenza,  and  then  he  called  on  his  victorious 
troops  to  confirm  what  the  pope  had  bestowed.  The  soldiers 
joyfully  hailed  him  duke,  and  he  henceforth  entitled  himselfj 
"  By  the  grace  of  God  and  St  Peter  duke  of  Apulia,  Gala- 
bria,  and  hereafter  of  Sicily."  But  many  years  elapsed  before 


268  HISTORY  OF  TUE  WORLD.  PART  U. 

he  was  master  of  all  these  dominions.  The  Normans  were 
few ;  the  counts  were  not  attached  to  him,  and  often  conspired 
against  him ;  the  sons  of  Humphry  asserted  their  claims,  and 
plotted  against  him ;  the  Greeks  and  Lombards  defended  the 
towns  on  the  sea-coast  with  skill  and  courage,  and  the  Nor- 
mans were  unused  to  sieges.  Twenty  years  were  spent  in 
giving  his  dominions  the  extent  of  the  present  kingdom  ot 
Naples. 

The  conquest  of  Sicily  was  achieved  in  the  reign  of  Ro 
\bert  Guiscard.  Roger,  the  last  of  the  twelve  brothers,  having 
arrived  in  Apulia,  Robert  admired,  then  envied  his  noblf 
qualities.  The  Greeks  had  abandoned  Sicily,  and  its  con 
quest  was  proposed  to  Roger.  With  sixty  followers,  he 
crossed  the  strait,  and  drove  the  Saracens  to  the  gates  of 
Messina.  The  spoils  acquired  attracted  others  to  his  standard ; 
his  brother  aided ;  small  bodies  of  Normans  overthrew  large 
1090.  armies  of  the  Moslems;  and  at  the  end  of  thirty  years  Roger, 
with  the  title  of  Great  Count,  was  master  of  the  island.  His 
government  was  liberal  and  judicious  beyond  the  age.  The 
Moslems  were  protected  in  their  persons,  religion,  and  prop- 
erty. 

The  ambition  of  Robert  aimed  at  conquest  in  the  Greek 
empire.  His  daughter  had  been  betrothed  to  the  son  of  the 
emperor  Michael;  but  the  youth  had  died,  and  his  father 
been  deposed.  Robert  affected  to  be  the  avenger  of  his 
friend :  a  pseudo-Michael  appeared  at  Salerno,  and  was  ac- 
knowledged by  the  wily  duke  and  the  able  Gregory  VII.  An 
army  was  collected  during  two  years,  and  assembled  at 
Otranto.  Robert  landed  near  Vallona,  at  the  head  of  30,000 
men,  of  whom  the  kernel  were  1300  Norman  knights.  Siege 
was  laid  to  Durazzo,  which  was  vigorously  defended.  The 
Norman  fleet  suffered  from  a  dreadful  storm ;  it  was  defeated 
by  that  of  Venice,  and  a  reinforcement  was  thrown  into  Di> 
razzo.  The  able  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus  advanced  a 
the  head  of  a  large  army ;  the  English,  who  had  left  their 
country,  now  enslaved  by  the  Normans,  increased  the  number 
of  the  brave  Verangians ;  with  them  were  joined  some  com- 
panies of  Latins  or  Western  Europeans ;  and  the  rebels  who 
had  fled  from  Robert,  and  a  body  of  Turkish  horse,  obeyed  the 
commands  of  the  Grecian  emperor.  Despair  added  to  the 
courage  of  the  Normans ;  the  emperor  injudiciously  gave  bat- 
tle ;  the  troops  of  Robert  at  first  yielded ;  the  Varangians, 
who  occupied  the  van,  imprudently  advanced  too  far,  and  ex- 
posing their  flanks  to  the  lances  of  the*  Norman  knights,  they 
were  slaughtered.     The  Turks  fled,  and  Alexius  now  saw 


C«AP.V  INCUEASE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER  lllj'J 

the  battle  was  lost.     On  the  valor  of  his  own  gubjects  he  *•  ■ 
placed  no  reliance.  1081 

Durazzo  was  taken  by  treachery.  Robert  advanced  through  1082 
Epirus  into  Thessaly ;  but  his  army  was  reduced  to  a  third. 
The  cities  of  Apulia  were  m  revolt.  Henry  king  of  Germany 
was  advancing  against  him.  He  passed  over  to  Apulia,  leav- 
ing the  command  of  the  army  to  the  gallant  Bohemond,  hia 
son  by  his  first  wife.  Bohemond  besieged  Larissa.  Alexius 
collected  another  army ;  various  indecisive  engagements  took 
place ;  the  counts  betrayed  and  deserted  Bohemond ;  his  camp 
was  pillaged,  and  he  was  forced  to  evacuate  the  country,  and 
return  to  his  father.  Meanwhile  Henry  had  entered  Rome, 
and  created  an  anti-pope.  Gregory  was  besieged  in  the 
Vatican :  he  invoked  the  aid  of  his  Norman  vassal.  Robert  1084 
displayed  the  holy  banner ;  6000  horse  and  80,000  foot  marched 
beneath  it  to  Rome.  Henry  retired,  and  Gregory  was  lib- 
erated. Thus  Robert,  in  the  space  of  three  years,  had  the 
glory  of  making  the  emperors  of  the  East  and  the  West  fly 
before  him,  and  of  delivering  the  greatest  of  the  popes  from 
captivity. 

Robert  prepared  agam  to  attack  the  eastern  empire.  Alex- 1084 
lus  had  collected  a  fleet  to  oppose  him ;  the  Venetians  joined 
their  vessels  to  those  of  the  empire.  The  Norman  troops 
were,  however,  landed  in  safety  in  Epirus,  and  then  Robert, 
with  twenty  galleys,  sought  the  allied  navy.  Three  battles 
were  fought  off  Corfu :  in  the  first  two  the  Normans  were 
repulsed ;  in  the  third  their  victory  was  complete.  Winter 
came  on.  In  the  spring  Robert  renewed  his  operations,  in- 
tending to  turn  his  arms  against  Greece ;  but  an  epidemic 
disease  seized  him  in  Cefalonia,  and  he  died  in  his  tent  in  the  1083 
70th  year  of  his  age.  The  army  dispersed  and  retired.  Ro- 
bert was  succeeded  by  his  second  son  ;  Roger  Bohemond 
being  regarded  as  illegitimate,  as  his  father  and  mother  had 
been  within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  kindred :  his  claims, 
however,  disturbed  the  nation  till  the  crusades  drew  him  off 
to  Asia. 

Italy — The  Popes. 

The  pretensions  of  the  popes  during  this  period  advanced 
with  rapid  strides.  In  their  contests  with  the  emperors  of 
*he  house  of  Franconia  they  had  to  rely  on  the  aid  of  a  strong 
party  in  Germany,  of  the  great  countess  Matilda  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  and  of  their  Norman  vassals  in  the  south.  Extent 
of  the  papal  dominion,  and  emancipation  from  the  superiority 
of  the  emperors,  were  the  great  objects  in  view :  the  daring 

23* 


270  raSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IL 

temper  and  lofty  genius  of  Gregory  VII.  almost  assured  the 
victory. 

Leo  IX.  and  Stephen  IX.  had  adorned  the  chair  by  theii 
birth  and  virtues.  In  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  II.  it  was 
established  in  a  synod  that  the  popes  were  to  be  chosen  by 
the  cardinal  bishops  (those  whose  sees  were  near  Rome),  and 
approved  of  by  the  cardinal  priests  and  deacons  (ministers  of 
the  parish  churches  at  Rome)  and  the  people,  and  then  pre 
sented  for  confirmation  to  the  emperor.  Hildebrand,  arch 
deacon  of  Rome,  was  the  author  of  this  plan,  the  object  of 
which  was  gradually  to  free  the  papacy  from  imperial  con- 
trol. On  the  death  of  Nicholas  he  had  Alexander  II.  chosen 
and  consecrated  without  waiting  for  the  imperial  sanction, 
and  on  the  death  of  Alexander  he  was  himself  raised  to  the 
pontificate  under  the  title  of  Gregory  VII.,  yet  he  refused  to 
be  consecrated  till  he  had  obtained  the  emperor's  consent. 

The  emperor  was  Henry  IV.,  a  dissolute,  arbitrary  prince 
The  Saxons  were  in  rebellion  against  him,  and  the  princes 
in  general  disaffected.  Gregory  commenced  his  attack  by 
excommunicating  some  of  his  ministers  for  simony :  he  then 
published  a  decree  against  lay  investitures,  or  the  investing 
of  spiritual  persons  with  the  ensigns  of  their  rank  by  laymen 
The  ring  and  crosier  were,  it  was  said,  the  emblems  of  z 
power  which  monarchs  could  not  bestow ;  and  though  the 
estates  of  the  church  might  be  temporal,  yet,  by  their  insepa 
rable  union  with  the  spiritual  office,  they  might  be  regarded 
as  partaking  of  its  sanctity. 

The  pope,  afler  long  treating  with  the  disaffected  party  ir 
Germany,  saw  he  might  advance  a  little,  and  he  sumnioneo 
Henry  to  appear  at  Rome.  Henry  was  enraged  :  he  assem- 
bled at  Worms  a  number  of  bishops  and  other  vassals,  and 
had  a  decree  passed  that  Gregory  should  not  be  obeyed  aa 
pope.  Gregory,  when  he  heard  this,  summoned  a  council  at 
the  Lateran,  excommunicated  Henry,  deprived  him  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Germany,  absolved  his  subjects  from 
their  allegiance,  and  commanded  them  not  to  obey  him. 
Gregory  acted  advisedly  in  this  unheard-of  stretch  of  power. 
Henry's  subjects  rejoiced  at  being  told  that  what  was  their 
inclination  was  also  their  duty :  conspiracies  ripened  into  re- 
bellion ;  the  bishops  were  terrified  at  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication ;  and  Henry  found  himself  alone.  He  adopted 
the  resolution  of  going  to  Italy,  and  casting  himself  at  the 
feet  of  the  pontiff.  In  the  midst  of  a  severe  winter  he  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  travelled  to  the  seat  of  the  countess  Matilda, 
at  Canossa,  near  Reggio.  Here,  with  naked  feet,  in  the 
woollen  shirt  worn  by  penitents,  he  stood  in  the  outer  court 


Loots  XIT. 


OBAP.  V.  INCREASE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  273 

for  three  days,  exposed  to  the  piercing  cold.  On  the  fourth, 
Gregory  admitted  and  gave  him  absolution ;  but  ordered  him 
to  appear  at  a  certain  time,  to  know  whether  he  should  be 
restored  to  his  kingdom. 

By  this  pusillanimous  step  Henry  had  disgusted  his  friends. 
He  saw  his  imprudence,  broke  off  the  negotiation,  and  took 
to  his  arms :  his  friends  rallied  about  him  :  he  was  victorious 
in  Germany  and  Italy ;  and  he  drove  Gregory  to  die  in  exile 
at  Salerno.  Urban  II.  and  Pascal  II.  carried  on  the  contest 
with  him :  tliey  excited  his  children  to  rebellion,  but  gained 
nothing  by  the  unnatural  contest;  for  Henry  V.,  who  had 
rebelled  for  the  popes  against  his  father,  when  he  ascended 
his  throne,  clung  as  obstinately  to  the  right  of  investiture  as 
he  had  done.  Being  on  good  terms  with  his  vassals,  it  would 
not  have  been  safe  to  try  with  liim  the  measures  which  had 
been  adopted  against  his  father ;  and  after  a  contest  of  fifteen 
years,  the  matter  was  settled  by  a  compromise  between  him  a.  d 
and  pope  Calixtus  11.  The  emperor  renounced  the  right  of  1122 
investing  bishops  with  the  ring  and  crosier,  and  recognized 
the  liberty  of  elections;  but  the  election  was  to  take  place  in 
the  presence  of  him  or  his  officer,  and  he  was  to  confer  the 
temporalities  by  the  sceptre.  A  similar  contest  had  been 
carried  on  and  was  terminated  in  the  same  manner  between 
Pascal  II.  and  Henry  I.  of  England. 

The  popes  had  a  plausible  pretext  for  thus  seeking  to  free 
spiritual  offices  from  lay  influence.  The  grossest  simony  had 
been  practised,  and  the  church,  as  far  as  was  possible  in  that 
age  of  gross  superstition,  thereby  deprived  of  its  sanctity. 
They  had  not  tHe  same  pretext  for  their  next  measure,  the 
injunction  of  celibacy.  Mankind  have  always  attached  a 
mysterious  effijct  to  this  virtue.  We  find  it  in  religious  honor 
in  Peru  and  in  Rome.  The  oriental  doctrines  early  introduced 
a  reverence  for  it  into  the  church.  It  gradually  was  extolled 
and  enjoined ;  but  human  nature  was  too  strong  for  it,  and 
marriage  was  generally  practised  among  the  clergy.  Leo 
IX.  set  vigorously  about  enforcing  it:  his  successors  followed 
up  his  measures :  tlie  laity,  as  might  be  expected,  took  part 
against  the  married  priests,  who  were  the  most  virtuous  of 
the  order ;  but  the  abuse  as  it  was  termed,  could  not  be  remov 
ed  without  tolerating  greater  evils.  It  is  plain  what  a  pow 
erful  engine  this  was  calculated  to  make  the  clergy  in  the 
hands  of  a  pope,  by  detaching  them  from  all  tJie  ties  of  social 
iife,  and  leaving  them  no  attachment  but  to  their  order  and 
»ts  head.  Yet  we  should  err  if  we  supposed  all  tlie  popes  to 
nave  been  profound  calculators  or  unprincipled  graspers  at 
power.     Maoy  of  them  were  men  of  eminent  virtue,  and  few 


274  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11. 

or  them  saw  clearly  the  ultimate  effect  of  their  projects.  The 
growth  of  the  papacy  was  like  that  of  a  plant,  the  necessary 
effect  of  predisposing  causes ;  and,  in  the  state  of  the  human 
mind  in  the  middle  ages,  its  progress  was  as  natural  as  that 
of  any  phenomenon  in  the  physical  world. 

The  arms  employed  by  the  popes  to  effect  their  purpose 
were  excommunication  and  interdict.  By  the  former  an  in- 
dividual, no  matter  what  his  rank  may  have  been,  was  cut 
off  from  society ;  it  was  sinful  to  hold  any  intercourse  with 
him,  and  temporal  disadvantages  were  annexed  to  the  sen- 
tence. But  this  extended  only  to  one  person.  Interdict 
visited  the  crime  of  one,  usually  a  sovereign,  on  all  in  any 
way  connected  with  him.  When  a  state  was  laid  under  an 
interdict,  the  churches  were  closed,  the  dead  unburied,  the 
bells  silent,  no  sacraments  administered  but  baptism  and  ex- 
treme unction.  The  operation  of  this  on  the  minds  of  a  su- 
perstitious people,  who  attached  such  mysterious  efficacy  to 
masses  and  sacraments,  may  easily  be  conceived ;  and  few 
monarchs  had  courage  to  dare  this  last  effort  of  pontifical 
vengeance. 

With  such  arms,  and  at  the  head  of  such  an  army,  the 
popes  seemed  almost  secure  of  universal  empire ;  and  we 
shall  soon  behold  their  power  at  its  very  climax,  but  yet  on 
the  point  of  declension,  from  causes  that  were  in  operation 
against  it 

Italy — Lombard  Cities. 

The  principal  cities  in  the  north  of  Italy  had,  under  the 
Lombard  and  French  kings,  been  subject,  With  their  districts, 
to  counts,  and  these  again  to  dukes.  The  Saxon  emperors 
separated  from  them  the  greater  part  of  the  territory,  and 
the  authority  of  the  count  was  usually  confined  to  the  town  ; 
the  bishop  often  obtained  the  government.  The  feudal  law 
of  Italy  was  not  so  definite  as  that  of  France ;  there  was 
frequent  war  between  the  vavassors  and  their  superior  lords; 
the  cities  were  strong  and  populous ;  bishops  were  elective 
and  not  hereditary,  and  less  bold  and  energetic  than  lay 
princes.  From  all  these  causes  the  cities  gradually  increased 
in  strength  and  power,  made  war  on  each  other,  obtained 
charters  from  the  emperors — became,  in  fact,  perfectly  inde- 
pendent As  the  possessions  of  the  rural  nobility  had  been 
originally  part  of  their  territory,  they  reclaimed  them,  reduced 
the  castles  of  the  nobles,  and  compelled  them  to  reside  in  the 
towns.  Here  the  nobles  aimed  at  obtaining  the  municipal 
offices,  and  the  government  was  at  this  period  chiefly  in  their 
hands.    The  policy  of  the  citizens  was  liberal:  they  encour 


CHAP.  V.  INCREASE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  275 

aged  settlement  among  them.     Their  mutual  and  bitter  war« 
and  animosities  were  the  great  blemish  tliey  presented 

Germany — House  of  Franconia. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  II.  the  house  of  Saxony  became  a.  d 
extinct     Conrad,  surnamed  the  Salic,  a  nobleman  of  Fran- 1024 
conia,  was  chosen  to  succeed.     This  prince  endeavored  to 
increase  the  power  of  his  family  by  bestowing  several  duchies 
on  his  relatives.     In  his  reign  Burgundy  was  annexed  to  the 
empire.     His  son,  Henry  III.,  trod  in  his  steps :  he  disposed,  1039 
at  his  will,  of  duchies,  controlled  the  papal  power,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  the  most  powerful  and  absolute  of  the  German 
emperors.     Henry  IV.,  his  son,  was  left  a  minor :  his  mother  1056 
Agnes  administered  the  government :  the  nobles  thought  the 
opportunity  good  for  recovering  their  power ;  the  archbishop 
of  Mentz  carried  away  the  young  king,  and  governed  in  his 
name :  the  education  of  Henry  was  neglected,  and  he  grew 
up  dissolute  and  addicted  to  low  company,  but  brave  and  good- 
natured.  The  Saxons  rebelled:  the  quarrel  about  investitures 
broke  out  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor.     Henry  was 
excommunicated  and  deposed  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  Rodolf 
duke  of  Swabia  was  raised  to  the  throne.     Henry  defended 
his  rights  with  vigor :  Rodolf  was  slain  in  battle.     The  pope 
excited  Henry's  son  to  rebellion  against  him ;  and  at  the  end 
of  thirty  years  of  continued  war,  in  which  he  had  fought 
sixty  battles,  the  unhappy  emperor  sunk  in  death,  and  his 
body  lay  for  years  unburied,  as  he  had  died  excommunicated.  1106 
Henry  V.,  a  rebel  to  his  father,  at  the  instigation  of  the  holy 
see,  was  as  tenacious  as  any  of  his  predecessors  of  the  right 
of  investiture.     After  a  long  contest  the  matter  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  settled  by  compromise  between  him  and  the  pope.  1125 
With  Henry  V.  ended  the  house  of  Franconia. 

France. 

Robert,  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  neglected  his  father's  projects  997 
for  extending  the  royal  power.     His  successor,  Henry  I.,  at- 
tempted to  recover  Normandy  during  the  minority  of  Wil-  103L 
liam,  afterwards  the  Conqueror,  but  without  success.    Philip 
I.  took  advantage  of  the  crusades  to  enlarge  the  limits  of  the  1060 
royal  power;  yet  so  narrow  were  these  limits,  that  at  tlie  1 108 
accession  of  Louis  VI.,  the  Fat,  it  was  almost  confined  to  the 
cities  of  Paris,  Orleans,  Bourges,  and  their  districts;  and  it 
cost  the  king  no  little  trouble  to  reduce  the  lords  of  Mont 
Chery  and  other  places  near  Paris.     In  the  reign  of  thi» 
monarch  properly  began  the  wars  between  France  and  Eng- 
»and,  which  lasted  three  centuries  and  a  half;  Ixiuia  takinj 


o^ 


^'&  aiSTOUTr  OP  THE  W0RL1>.  PART  H 

the  part  of  William,  son  of  Robert  duke  of  Normandy,  against 
Henry  I.  of  England,  who  had  usurped  that  duchy. 

England. 

A  n.      After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  William's  claim  to  the  crown 

066  was  admitted,  the  inutility  of  opposition  being  apparent.  He 
was  crowned  at  Westminster,  and  took  the  usual  coronation 
oath  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs.  His  reign  was  at  first 
moderate ;  only,  as  it  was  necessary  to  gratify  the  rapacity 
of  his  Norman  followers,  the  estates  of  those  who  fought 
against  him  at  Hastings  were  unjustly  confiscated  as  those 
of  rebels.  But  these  were  halcyon  days.  In  the  following 
year  he  returned  to  Normandy :  his  Normans,  whom  he  left 
in  England,  oppressed  and  insulted  the  people  in  the  most 

I0G7  opprobrious  manner.  The  English  rebelled.  William,  who, 
when  he  left  the  kingdom,  probably  knew  what  would  take 
place,  returned,  crushed  the  incipient  insurrection,  confiscated 
estates,  and  bestowed  them  on  his  followers.  The  following 
year  another  rebellion,  produced  by  the  same  cause,  had  the 

OSa  same  result;  and  William,  if  he  ever  had  any  regard  for  his 
English  subjects,  now  manifested  nothing  towards  them  but 
hatred  and  aversion.  Many  of  the  English  nobles  fled  from 
their  country  to  Scotland,  to  Constantinople,  and  elsewhere,- 
all  places  of  trust  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Normans,  ano 
gradually  they  were  becoming  possessed  of  all  the  landa 
Aided  by  the  Danes  and  Scots,  the  people  rose  once  more  in 
arms ;  but  the  vigor  and  policy  of  the  king  proved  too  pow- 
erful for  them.  He  now  increased  his  rigor ;  he  laid  waste 
the  country  between  the  Humber  and  the  Tees,  to  curb  the 
Northumbrians,  and  100,000  people  are  said  to  have  perished 
by  this  odious  policy.  Having  now  seized  almost  the  whole 
of  the  land  of  England,  he  introduced  all  the  rigors  of  the 
feudal  law;  he  divided  the  kingdom  into  60,000  knights' 
fees,  which  he  chiefly  bestowed  on  his  Normans,  to  hold  im- 
mediately of  himself.  A  large  portion  of  them  were  formed 
into  700  baronies,  for  the  principal  of  his  Norman  lords,  and 
such  of  the  English  as  retained  their  lands  found  themselves 
subjected  to  the  feudal  burdens.  Besides  these  baronies, 
1422  manors  constituted  the  royal  demesne,  the  rent  of  which 
was  the  chief  revenue  of  the  crown.  All  the  dignities  of 
the  church  were  bestowed  upon  the  Normans ;  an  attempt 
was  even  made  to  abolish  the  English  language,  which  m 
part  unfortunately  succeeded,  and  hence  arose  the  mingled 
dialect  we  now  speak. 

Great  as  was  the  suffering  caused  by  the  Norman  monarchs 
and  their  barons,  it  is  to  the  tyranny  cf  these  princes  that 


STEPHEN. 


HENRY  II. 


RICHARD  I. 


JOHN. 


HENRY  UI. 


CHAP.  V.  INCREASE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWEK.  279 

England  ia  in  a  ^eat  measure  indebted  for  her  having  pre- 
ceded the  other  nations  in  the  establisliment  of  popular  hberty 
and  constitutional  monarchy.  For  while  elsewhere  the  no- 
bles could  defy  the  king  and  oppress  the  people,  here  they 
were  obliged  to  call  the  people  to  their  aid  against  the  enor- 
mous power  of  the  crown.  Hence  arose  the  dignity  and  in- 
fluence of  the  commons  of  England. 

William  left  three  sons,  Robert,  William,  and  Henry.    To  a.  ik 
the  first  he  left  Normandy ;  to  the  second,  England.  William  1087 
II.   was  an  oppressive,   tyrannical   monarch.     His  brother 
Rx)bert  at  first  contested  the  crown  of  England  with  him,  but 
was  forced  to  desist  from  his  claims.     Robert  was  a  brave, 
generous  prince;  he  was  inflamed  with  the  general  mania 
of  the  crusades,  and  he  mortgaged  Normandy  to  William  for 
10,000  marks,  to  equip  him  for  the  expedition.    William  earl 
of  Poitiers  and  duke  of  Guienne  made  a  similar  agreement 
with  him ;  but  as  he  was  preparing  a  fleet  and  army  to  go  to 
take  possession  of  these  provinces,  he  was  accidentally  shot 
by  an  arrow,  while  hunting  in  the  New  Forest,  for  the  form- 
ation of  which  his  father  had  laid  waste  the  greater  part  lioo 
of  Hampshire. 

Henry  on  the  death  of  his  brother  hastened  to  Winchester 
to  secure  the  royal  treasure,  and  he  married  Matilda,  niece 
of  Edgar  Atheling,  the  last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  royal  family. 
On  his  return  from  the  East,  Robert  claimed  the  kingdom ; 
but  Henry  was  too  strong  for  him ;  and  in  consequence  of  the 
indolence  and  remissness  of  Robert,  Henry  soon  afterwards 
made  himself  master  of  Normandy,  and  took  his  brother  and 
confined  him  for  life  in  the  castle  of  Cardiff.  Henry  had  a 
long  contest  with  the  popes  about  the  right  of  investiture, 
and  the  matter  was  compromised  as  in  Germany.  This  king 
had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  only  son.  His  daughter  Ma- 
tilda was  married  to  the  emperor  Henry  V. ;  and  Henry  dying 
ithout  issue,  she  was  again  married  to  Geoflrey  son  of  Fulk, 
ount  of  Anjou,  by  whom  she  had  a  son.  Henry  left  Matilda  1135 
heiress  of  all  his  dominions. 

Stephen  count  of  Blois  was  grandson  of  the  conqueror,  by 
hia  daughter  Adela.  Henry  I.  had  greatly  favored  and  en- 
riched him  and  his  brother  Henry,  whom  he  made  bishop  of 
Winchester.  On  the  death  of  Henry,  Stephen  hastened  to 
England,  secured  the  royal  treasure,  and  was  crowned.  The 
rights  of  Matilda  were  upheld  by  her  natural  brother,  Robert 
of  Gloucester,  and  several  barons.  Nearly  twenty  years 
elapsed  in  civil  war  between  the  two  parties ;  the  power  of 
the  crown  was  greatly  diminished ;  the  great  barons  were 
rapidly  attaining  to  independence ;  the  papal  power  waa  en- 


280  HISTORY  OJ  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

croaching ;  and  all  the  evils  of  relaxed  government  were  felt 
A  compromise  was  at  last  made  between  Stephen  and  Henry, 
son  of  Matilda,  to  whom  she  had  made  over  her  rights,  that 

4  D.  Stephen  should  reign  during  his  life,  and  Henry  succeed, 

llii  Stephen  did  not  long  enjoy  his  reign. 

Spain. 

In  Spain  the  Christian  states  continued  gradually  to  ga' 
on  the  Mohammedan  territories.    Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  an 

085.  Leon  had  recovered  from  the  Moslems  Toledo,  the  ancien 
Gothic  capital.   Alfonso  I.  of  .Aragon  pushed  his  conquests  to 

1118.  the  Ebro,  and  made  hunself  master  of  Saragossa,  which  he 
now  made  the  capital  of  his  dominions. 

Constantinople. 

1081.  We  have  seen  Alexius  Comnenus  valiantly  defending  his 
dominions  against  the  Normans.  With  equal  wisdom  and 
good  fortune  he  maintained  himself  against  the  Russians  who 
assailed  the  empire  in  Europe,  and  the  Seljookian  Turks  who 
pressed  on  it  in  the  East.  He  also  knew  how  to  derive  advan- 
tage from  the  passage  over  into  Asia  of  the  formidable  mul- 
titudes of  the  crusaders. 

HIS.  John,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alexius,  was  also  a  prince 
of  valor,  ability,  and  magnanimity,  and  while  he  reigned  he 

il43.  bravely  defended  all  the  frontiers  of  the  empire.  His  son 
Manuel  partook  not  of  the  noble  qualities  of  his  family,  but 
he  transmitted  the  empire  unimpaired  to  his  son. 

The  Seljookians. 

The  Turks  had  from  the  most  remote  ages  led  a  pastoral 
iife  in  the  plains  beyond  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  whence  they 
continually  made  inroads  into  the  empire  of  Persia.  In  the 
decline  of  the  powers  of  the  khalifs,  they  encroached  mor 
and  more,  and  pastured  their  herds  south  of  these  rivers. 
They  were  encouraged  by  their  countrymen,  who  were  domi- 
nant at  the  court  of  the  khalifs ;  and  Mahmood  of  Ghizni 
placed  several  of  their  tribes  in  Kliorassan.  On  his  death, 
these  Turks  made  inroads  into  Persia,  and  ravaged  to  the 
i038  Tigris.  Massood,  his  successor,  collected  an  army  and  gave 
them  battle  on  the  plains  of  Zendecan.  The  Ghiznivide  was 
defeated  and  driven  out  of  the  greater  part  of  his  dominions. 

The  Turks  now  proceeded  to  elect  a  king.  The  decision 
was  committed  to  the  lot  of  arrows ;  and  Toghrul  Beg,  the 
Bon  of  Michael,  the  ^son  of  Seljook,  gained  the  prize,  Togh- 
rul, having  made  himself  master  of  Khorassan,  advanced  into 
Ink,  subdued  it,  and  then  took  Bagdad,  where  he  was,  by 


OHAP.  V  INCEEASB  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  281 

thefeeblekhalif,  appointed  vicegerent  ofthe  vicar  of  the  propli-  ^  d. 
et,  and  lord  over  all  Mohammedans.  The  conquest  of  Ader-  1056. 
bijan  (Media;  brought  the  Seljookians  into  contact  with  the 
Romans,  who  had  gradually  recovered  their  former  possessions 
as  far  as  the  eastern  frontier  of  Armenia,  and  their  ambassa- 
dors appeared  at  Constantinople,  to  demand  tribute  and  obedi- 
ence. The  Turkish  cavalry  ravaged  the  country  to  the  city 
of  Erzeroom,  and  massacred  130,000  Christians;  but  Toghrul 
was  not  able  to  make  any  lasting  impression. 

Toghrul  and  his  subjects  were  zealous  in  the  faitli  of  Islam, 
and  he  entertained  the  highest  reverence  for  the  successors 
of  the  prophet.  He  restored  to  his  dominion  Bagdad  and  its 
district ;  and  the  khalif  enjoyed  a  degree  of  ease  and  inde- 
pendence to  which  he  had  been  long  a  stranger.  Yet  it  was 
with  reluctance  that  the  khalif  Cayem  bestowed  his  daughter  1063. 
on  the  Turkman  shepherd,  though  monarch  of  Asia. 

Toghrul  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Alp  Arslan  (  Val-  1065. 
iant  Lion).  This  monarch  invaded  the  Roman  empire :  the  1068. 
conquest  of  Armenia  was  rapid  ;  the  Georgians  of  Caucasus 
offered  a  braver  though  as  unavailing  a  resistance.  The 
Turks  penetrated  to  Phrygia :  Romanus  Diogenes,  the  val- 
iant husband  of  the  empress  Eudocia,  marched  against  them. 
In  three  campaigns  he  drove  them  beyond  the  Euphrates;  in  1071. 
a  fourth,  he  attempted  the  recovery  of  Armenia.  But  fortune 
here  deserted  the  Roman  emperor ;  treachery  or  cowardice 
caused  the  overthrow  of  his  army ;  after  long  fighting  with 
desperate  valor,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  was  led  captive  into  the  presence  of  Alp  Arslan, 
whose  magnanimity  and  generosity  on  this  occasion  may  al- 
most vie  with  that  of  the  Black  Prince  to  the  king  of  France. 
Romanus,  after  the  kindest  treatment,  was  set  at  liberty,  on 
condition  of  a  large  ransom  and  an  annual  tribute.  Alp  Ars- 
an  now  turned  his  arms  against  his  countrymen  beyond  the 
Oxus :  the  dagger  of  a  Carismian,  maddened  by  the  severity 
of  the  sentence  threatened  him,  pierced  the  heart  of  the  Sel- 1072. 
jookian  in  the  midst  of  his  guards,  and  the  remains  of  Alp 
Arslan  were  entombed  at  Merv. 

Malek  Shah,  the  son  of  Alp  Arslan,  was,  in  noble  qualities 
and  extent  of  dominion,  the  greatest  prince  of  his  age.  The 
Turkman  tribes  aclcnowledged  his  supremacy ;  and  from  the 
confines  of  China  to  those  of  Constantinople  and  Egypt  his 
mandates  were  obeyed.  Learning  was  encouraged  and  the 
calendar  reformed  in  the  reign  of  Malek ;  but  the  praise  must 
be  shared  with  his  illustrious  vizier,  tjie  great  and  good 
Nizam-ul-mulk,  who  directed  tlie  government  under  him  and 
big  father.  Alp  Arslan.  At  the  age  of  ninety-three  veart, 
24* 


282  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

Nizam  was  disgraced,  and  lie  perished  by  tht  dagger  of  one 
of  the  followers  of  his  schoolfellow,  Hassan  Sabah,  who  had 
just  now  organized  the  society  of  the  ASsassins.  Malek  did 
not  long  survive  his  minister,  and  the  brief  remainder  of  his 

A.  D.  reign  was  inglorious.     He  died  suddenly  at  Bagdad,  and  hia 

i092  death  was  imputed  to  Hassan. 

On  the  death  of  Malek,  his  empire,  after  the  usual  course 
of  civil  war  among  his  sons,  was  divided,  but  finally  reunited 
in  the  person  of  Sanjar,  the  survivor  of  them,  and  the  last 
great  monarch  of  the  Seljookians  of  Persia.  Sanjar  ruled 
from  Cashgar  to  Antioch,  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Straits  of 
Babelmandeb. 

During  tlie  time  of  these  princes,  the  power  of  the  Sel- 
jookians was  established  in  Rx>om,  i.  e.  Lesser  Asia.  Kootel- 
mish,  grandson  of  Seljook,  had  attempted  to  form  an  inde- 
pendent dominion  in  that  country,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
His  son,  Mansoor,  paid  tribute  to  Alp  Arslan  and  Malek  Shah, 
till,  by  the  command  of  the  latter,  he  also  was  put  to  death. 
His  younger  brother,  Suleiman,  would  have  had  a  similar 
fate  but  for  the  interference  of  Nizam-ul-mulk,  on  whose  re- 
presentations he  was  not  only  granted  his  life,  but  given  an 

1074.  army,  with  commission  to  make  conquest  in  Room.  Suleiman 
crossed  the  Euphrates :  soon  almost  the  whole  of  Lesser  Asia 
obeyed  the  Turkish  sultan,  who  fixed  his  seat  of  empire  at 
Nice  in  Bithynia :  his  aid  was  implored  by  rival  candidates 
for  the  purple ;  and  even  Alexius  Comnenus  sought  his  sup- 
port against  the  Normans.  By  treachery  Antioch  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Suleiman.  Constantinople  was  menaced,  and 
Alexius  sent  through  Europe  supplicatory  epistles.  Jerusalem 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 

Jerusalem  had  long  been  the  resort  of  pious  or  zealous 
Christians.  In  the  times  of  the  early  khalifs  and  the  first 
Abbassides  their  access  had  never  been  impeded;  and  Ha- 
roon-er-Rasheed  had  even  presented  Charlemagne  with  the 
keys  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  perhaps  of  the  city.  The  pil- 
grimages were  advantageous  to  the  subjects  of  the  khalifs,  as 
they  brought  money  and  trade  to  tlieir  coasts.  When  the 
Fatemites  of  Egypt  got  possession  of  Palestine,  they  were 
far  from  throwing  any  impediments  in  the  way  of  western 
devotion,  and  it  was  only  for  a  time  interrupted  by  the  mad 

009.  freaks  of  the  khalif  Hakem.  Sat  Atsiz,  one  of  the  .ieu- 
tenants  of  Malek  Shah,  marched  into  Syria,  took  Damascus?, 
and  reduced  the  province :  he  advanced  into  Egypt,  and  the 
Fatemite  khalif  was  about  to  fly  into  Nubia  before  the  troops, 
who  maintained  the  cause  of  the  Abbasside,  when  the  people 
of  Cairo  and  the  negro  guards  valiantly  repelled  the  Turks 


v'»t'JS3iM»Mf'.»''M ,.. 


'p. 

;;;'■- -It 
I  ■ 


'.i    V 


o 


CHAP.  V.  INCREASE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  285 

froan  the  frontiers.     But  Tootush,  brother  of  Malek  Shah,  a.  o 
now  appeared,  and  Syria  and  Palestine  obeyed  for  twenty  1076 
years  tlie  hoiif  e  of  Seljook ;  and  the  rude  Turks  treated  with 
the  utmost  insolence  and  cruelty  tlie  Christian  pilgrims,  who 
now  flocked  to  the  Holy  Land  in  greater  numbers  than  ever. 

First  Crusade. 

The  pilgrims  filled  Europe  with  complaints  of  the  profana-  io<€ 
tion  of  the  sepulchre.  The  letters  of  Alexius  portrayed  the 
power  of  the  Turks,  and  the  danger  of  the  Greek  empire : 
Gregory  VII.  had  already  meditated  the  union  of  Christen- 
dom against  Islam ;  Europe  was  full  of  ardent  enthusiastic 
warriors,  Peter  the  Hermit  proposed  to  Urban  II.,  the  then 
pope,  a  project  of  leading  armies  into  Asia,  and  conquering 
the  Holy  Land.  A  council  was  summoned  at  Placentia ;  it 
was  numerously  attended  by  both  clergy  and  laity,  and  war 
was  resolved  on.  Another  council  was  held  at  Clermont  in 
Auvergne,  and,  on  hearing  the  exhortations  of  the  pope  and 
the  hermit,  the  whole  assembly  cried.  It  is  the  will  of  God ! 
and  each  champion  devoted  himself  to  the  holy  war  by  ai&x- 
ing  a  cross  to  his  right  shoulder. 

The  kingdom  of  heaven  was  promised  to  all  who  fell  in  the 
war  against  the  infidels :  the  acquisition  of  earthly  kingdoms 
in  Asia,  of  whose  wealth  and  fertility  they  had  heard  such 
marvels,  was  to  crown  success.  Piety,  curiosity,  every  feel- 
ing was  roused :  all  sins  were  forgiven  to  the  crossed ;  hos- 
tilities were  prohibited  against  the  states  of  those  who  warred 
for  Christ.  Robert  duke  of  Normandy,  Hugh,  brother  of  the 
king  of  France,  Raymond  count  of  Toulouse,  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  and  his  brothers  Eustace  and  Baldwin,  Stephen 
count  of  Blois,  were  the  chief  leaders,  and  an  immense  num- 
ber of  all  ranks  and  ages  crowded  to  the  sacred  standard. 
Three  hundred  thousand,  under  the  guidance  of  Peter  the 
Hermit,  Walter  the  Moneyless,  and  others,  straggled  on  be- 
fore. In  their  passage  through  Hungary  and  Bulgaria,  part 
were  massacred  by  the  inhabitants,  whom  they  pillaged ;  and 
the  rest,  on  entering  Asia,  were  slaughtered  by  the  Turks. 
The  great  army  followed,  and  poured  into  Constantinople,  to 
the  dismay  of  Alexius,  who  lost  no  time  in  passing  them 
over  into  Asia.  When  assembled  before  the  walls  of  Nice,  loy 
they  numbered  600,000  combatants.  They  besieged  and  took 
Uiat  city,  defeating  the  Seljookian  Kilij  Aralan  in  two  great 
battles,  and  took  every  town  which  lay  in  tlieir  way  to  An- 
tioch,  of  which  city  Bohemond,  the  son  of  Robert  Guiscardt 
waa  made  prince.     Baldwin,  at  the  call  of  its  Christian  m- 


286  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IL 

habitants,  passed  the  Euphrates,  and  assumed  the  sovereignty 
of  Edessa. 

Afdel  the  vizier  of  the  Fatemite  khalif  Mostaali,  had  re- 
covered Jerusalem  from  the  Turks :  the  crusaders  were  in- 
formed that  they  might  now  perfonn  their  vows,  if  they  came 
unarmed,  and  that  pilgrims  would  henceforth  meet  the  good 
treatment  they  had  hitherto  experienced.  The  offer  was  re- 
\.  D.  jected:  the  champions  of  the  cross  appeared  before  the  holy 
1099.  city.  Thirty-nine  days  they  besieged  it :  on  the  15th  of  July 
it  was  stormed :  no  age  or  sex  was  spared :  70,000  is  said  tc 
have  been  the  number  of  the  victims.  Various  circumstances 
had  so  reduced  the  Christian  host,  that  of  the  vast  multitude 
that  crossed  the  Bosphorus  but  1500  horse  and  20,000  foot 
marched  from  Tortosa  to  Jerusalem. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  chosen  king  by  his  fellow-wai- 
riors ;  but  he  refused  to  bear  that  title  in  the  khigdom  of  the 
Son  of  David :  the  land  was  partitioned  into  fiefs,  and  a  code 
of  feudal  regulations,  called  the  Assizes  of  Jerusalem,  drawn 
up  for  the  administration  of  it.  Two  religious  military  orders 
were  afterwards  f9rmed  for  its  farther  defence.  Before  the 
time  of  the  crusade  there  had  been  a  society  for  attending 
118  sick  pilgrims  in  the  hospital  of  St.  John.  Hugo  des  Payens, 
of  the  house  of  Champagne,  Godfrey  of  St.  Adomer,  and 
seven  other  knights  formed  themselves  into  an  order  named 
Templars,  from  their  house  near  the  site  of  the  temple  of 
Solomon.  Their  vows  before  the  patriarch  were  to  defend 
pilgrims  against  robbers,  obedience,  celibacy,  and  poverty. 
St.  Bernard,  at  the  desire  of  the  king  of  France  and  other 
lords  and  princes,  drew  up  a  rule  for  them.  In  battle  they 
vowed  to  be  the  first  in  action,  the  last  in  retreat :  this  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  brethren  of  the  Hospital ;  and  a 
new  order,  the  Teutonic,  was  soon  added  to  these  military 
and  religious  associations.  The  Christian  empire  at  this  pe- 
riod extended  from  the  borders  of  Armenia  to  those  of  Egypt ; 
but  it  was  feeble,  and  encompassed  by  powerfiil  enemies.  Ita 
population,  though  brave,  was  few ;  and  its  reliance,  an  on 
stable  one,  was  on  the  West. 


.  HAP.  VI.    PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.  287 

CHAP.  VL 

THI   PJUPAL   POWER   AT    ITS   GREATEST    HEIGHT 

Italy — The  Popes. 

F^ROM  the  time  of  Gregory  VII,  his  successors  faithfully 
adhered  to  his  principle  of  extending  the  power  of  the  holy 
see.  After  him  no  pope  dreamed  of  waiting  for  the  imperial 
confirmation.  It  was  even  hinted  that  the  emperor  should, 
in  right,  be  confirmed  by  the  pope.  In  their  intercourse  witli 
the  German  emperors,  the  pope  and  his  legate  used  language 
respecting  the  imperial  dignity  which  seemed  to  imply  that 
it  was  a  fief  of  the  holy  see ;  and  Adrian,  when  granting  Ire- 
land to  Henry  II.,  spoke  of  all  islands  as  being  the  property 
of  St.  Peter. 

This  last  and  other  monarchs  made  a  resolute  opposition 
to  the  exorbitant  claims  of  the  pontiffs ;  but  the  latter  knew 
so  well  how  to  take  advantage  of  circumstances,  and  had  such 
a  well-disciplined  army  in  the  clergy,  and  so  powerful  a  ma- 
chine to  work  with  in  the  gross  superstition  of  the  laity,  that 
they  were  seldom  foiled  in  any  of  their  measures.  The  pon- 
tiff who  carried  his  pretensions  the  highest,  and  exercised 
them  most  effectually,  was  Innocent  III.,  who,  of  noble  birth, 
lofty  and  powerful  mind,  and  in  the  prime  of  life,  ascended  a  a 
the  papal  throne  in  1194.  Availing  himself  of  the  einbar-  1194 
rassments  of  the  Saxon  emperors  of  Germany,  of  the  ambition 
and  interestedness  of  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and  of  the 
vices  and  cowardice  of  the  infamous  John,  and  the  feebleness 
and  folly  of  his  son  Henry  III.  of  England,  Innocent  raised  the 
papal  power  to  a  height  scarcely  dreamed  of  by  his  predeces- 
sors. He  acquired  independent  sovereignty  in  Italy,  estab- 
lished the  control  over  temporal  princes,  and  supremacy  over 
the  church. 

The  popes,  in  consequence  of  real  or  pretended  grants  from 
Constantine,  Pepin  and  his  son,  and  Louis,  had  always  laid 
claim  to  extensive  dominions;  but  in  reality  they  possessed 
hardly  any.  In  Rome  the  imperial  prefect  and  the  turbulent 
spirit  of  the  people  held  them  in  check,  and  all  the  little 
places  about  Rome  were  as  independent  as  in  the  days  of 
Romulus.  The  countess  Matilda,  the  great  friend  of  Gregory 
VII.,  had  left  the  reversion  of  her  large  possessions  to  the 
holy  see.  These  were  the  imperial  fiefs  of  Tuscany,  Mantua, 
and  Modena,  of  which  she  had  certainly  no  right  to  dispose: 
tlie  remainder,  the  duchy  of  Spoleto,  and  the  march  of  Anco 


k 


288  HISTORT  OF  THB  WORLD.  PART  H 

na,  she  held  under  a  somewhat  different  title,  and  might  ap- 
pear to  have  more  power  over.  However,  the  emperors  dis- 
k  D.  regarded  the  claims  of  the  pontiffs,  and  disposed  of  Spoleto 
1177.  and  Ancona  as  parts  of  the  empire.  Frederick  Barbarossa 
promised  to  restore  them  after  fifteen  years ;  but  Henry  VI. 
granted  them  away  as  imperial  fiefs.  At  his  death,  a  dis- 
puted succession  engaging  the  Germans  in  civil  war,  Italy 
was  left  to  herself;  and  Innocent  now  put  forth  the  claims  of 
the  holy  see,  and  produced  a  true  or  false  will  of  Henry  VL 
in  its  favor.  The  cities  of  these  states  had,  like  those  of  Lorn- 
bardy,  become  independent,  but  were  harassed  by  German 
partisans  settled  in  Italy  by  the  emperors,  and  they  glad.y 
put  themselves  uider-the  protection  of  the  holy  see.  Thus 
Spoleto  and  Ancona  submitted,  and,  a  few  years  afterwards, 
Innocent,  not  feeling  himself  strong  enough  to  hold  them, 
prudently  granted  Ancona  in  fief  to  the  marquis  of  Este.  At 
home  he  forced  the  prefect  to  swear  allegiance  to  him,  and 
not  to  the  emperor,  and  curbed  as  far  as  he  was  able  the  spirit 
of  the  people.  Thus  the  holy  see  became  a  temporal  power. 
The  superiority  of  the  pontifical  over  the  royal  power  was 
strongly  put  forth  by  Innocent :  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth 
were  Christ's,  and  consequently,  by  the  logic  of  those  days, 
his  vicar's ;  and  the  little,  mean,  selfish  policy  of  the  princes 
prompted  them,  on  every  occasion  where,  they  had  any  object 
to  attain,  to  submit  to  and  forward  the  pretensions  of  their 
common  enemy.  The  submission  of  Henry  II.  cannot  be 
blamed :  he  struggled  nobly,  and  had  all  the  world  against 
him.  The  baseness  of  John,  in  surrendering  his  kingdom, 
and  receiving  it  back  as  a  fief,  is  unparalleled.  Peter  II.  of 
Aragon,  it  is  true,  did  the  same ;  but  with  certainly  a  better 
motive — to  secure  it  against  ambitious  neighbors.  The  pope 
was,  in  fact,  become  suzerain,  censor,  and  conservator  of  the 
peace  of  Europe :  his  weapons  were  interdict  and  excommu- 
nication. These  were  effectual,  and,  when  the  interests  of 
the  holy  see  were  not  involved,  were  often  beneficially  em- 
ployed. Philip  Augustus,  for  example,  when  in  the  zenith 
of  his  power,  having  divorced  his  wife,  the  Danish  princess 
Ingeborg,  under  tlie  pretext  of  consanguinity,  and  espoused 
another.  Innocent,  who,  when  his  own  interest  was  not  con- 
cerned, loved  social  order,  directed  him  to  take  back  his 
queen.  Philip  demurred ;  France  was  laid  under  interdict, 
and  Philip  submitted.  The  papal  thunder  rolled  over  every 
kingdom  in  Europe,  enjoining  peace,  and  punishing  public 
and  private  offences. 

National  churches  had  originally  possessed  a  good  deal  of 
independence  and  the  clergy  had  shown  every  disposition  t< 


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CHAP.  VI.    PAPA..  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.  291 

exercise  a  despotic  power  over  the  laity ;  but  the  popes  A'ere 
bent  to  draw  all  power  to  themselves.  It  had  been  their 
policy  to  support  bishops  against  their  metropolitans,  and 
thereby  break  the  power  of  the  latter ;  they  now  prohibited 
any  bishop  to  exercise  his  functions  till  he  had  received  ron- 
finnttion  from  the  holy  see.  Gregory  forced  bishops  to  ap- 
pear in  person  at  Rome,  to  receive  the  pallium,  and  all  pre- 
lates were  harassed  with  citations  thither.  Legates  were  sta^ 
tioned  in  every  kingdom,  as  the  representatives  of  the  popes, 
with  extensive  powers.  The  popes  levied  taxes  on  the  clergy 
to  an  enormous  extent :  they  assumed  the  right  of  appointing 
to  bishoprics,  and  all  other  benefices. 

The  chief  bases  on  which  the  papal  dominion  rested  were, 
after  the  gross  superstition  of  the  people,  1.  The  canon  law 
originating  in  the  false  decretals  of  Isidore,  which  had  been 
brought  forth,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  with 
the  view  of  lowering  the  authority  of  metropolitans,  by  allow- 
ing of  appeals  to  Rome,  and  forbidding  national  councils  to 
be  held  without  its  consent.  These  decretals  purported  to  be 
the  decrees  of  the  early  bishops  of  Rome.  About  1140,  Gra- 
tian,  a  monk,  published  his  Decretum,  in  which  the  decretals 
of  Isidore,  and  the  rescripts  of  pontiffs  and  decrees  of  coun- 
cils, were  arranged  under  heads,  like  the  Pandects :  various 
additions  were  made  to  this;  the  civil  law  was  followed;  the 
papal  power  extolled,  and,  in  the  professors  of  this  law,  a 
powerful  body  of  partisans  raised  for  the  papacy. — 2.  The  es- 
tablishments of  the  mendicant  orders,  who  by  a  greater  strict- 
ness of  manners,  a  professedly  purer  system  of  faith,  and  an 
abuse  of  the  secular  clergy,  gained  the  esteem  of  the  laity, 
always  caught  by  these  qualities.  Devoted  to  the  pontiffe, 
they  were  supported  in  return  by  them,  and  exempted  from 
episcopal  authority :  for  as  the  secular  clergy  became  disaf- 
fected on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  pillaged 
by  the  papacy,  the  latter  was  glad  to  raise  up  rivals  to  them. 
The  great  schoolmen,  such  as  Thomas  Aquinas,  were  of  these 
orders,  and  they  elevated  the  papal  authority  to  the  utmost 
Two  other  causes  increased  the  papal  influence  with  princes 
and  the  great: — 3.  Dispensations  of  marriage.  The  ascetic 
maxims,  which  had  so  early  gotten  into  the  church,  extended 
the  prohibition  of  marriage  to  the  seventh  degree  of  consan- 
guinity ;  this  was  afterwards  extended  to  affinity,  and  then  to 
spiritual  affinity,  or  gossipship.  The  royal  and  great  families 
were  so  connected  with  one  another,  that  it  was  difficult  for 
tlieni  to. marry  without  the  canonical  limits;  and  hence  all 
♦Jie  divorces  we  read  of  under  this  pretext,  but  caused  by  pas- 
sion or  ambition.    Innocent  III.  laid  it  down  as  a  maxim,  that 


292  HI8T0EY  OJ  THE  WORLD.  PAET  11 

he  was  empowered  to  dispense  with  the  law :  money  soor 
flowed  rapidly  into  the  papal  exchequer,  and  princes  looked 
up  to  their  spiritual  father,  who  could  allow  them  to  gratify 
their  passions. — 4.  The  dispensing  power  which  legitimated 
bastards,  and  released  men  from  their  most  solemn  oaths  and 
engagements,  on  the  ground  that  oaths  extorted  by  violence, 
or  injurious  to  the  church,  are  not  binding. 

Such  was  the  papal  power  when  at  its  zenith ;  a  power,  no 
doubt,  not  unfrequently  exerted  for  beneficial  purposes,  but, 
from  its  very  nature,  prejudicial  to  the  best  interests  of  man. 
The  world  never  will  witness  such  another  dominion ;  for  it 
is  hardly  within  the  limits  of  possibility  that  such  a  state  of 
society  as  the  middle  ages  presented  can  return. 

Italy — the  Lombard  Cities. 

The  cities  of  Lombardy  all  acknowledged  the  superiority 
of  the  emperor.  When  Frederic  Barbarossa  ascended  the 
throne,  he  claimed  all  the  power  possessed  by  Augustus.  The 
independence  of  the  Lombard  cities  appeared  to  him  rebellion, 
and  he  resolved  to  chastise  it.  The  injustice  of  Milan,  which, 
in  1111,  had  taken  and  razed  Lodi,  gave  him  a  pretext  Two 
citizens  of  the  latter  implored  him  to  avenge  its  wrongs.  He 
entered  Italy,  held  a  diet  at  Roncaglia,  where  complaints 
poured  in  against  the  Milanese.  He  took  the  field  against 
them  and  their  allies ;  but  the  nature  of  a  feudal  army,  and 
the  ill  terms  he  was  on  with  pope  Adrian  IV.,  prevented  his 
effecting  much.  He  assembled  another  army,  to  which  al- 
most every  city  of  Lombardy  was  forced  to  send  its  mUitia, 
and  Milan  was  reduced  to  surrender. 

^  D       Frederic  held  another  diet  at  Roncaglia,  in  which  the  cities 

1158.  were  forbidden  to  make  war  on  each  other,  to  coin  money,  or 
levy  tolls ;  and  an  imperial  magistrate,  called  Podesta,  was  to 
administer  justice  with  the  consuls,  as  their  own  chief  magis 
trates  were  styled.  The  Milanese  were  more  severely  treated 
than  any  others :  they  saw  the  utter  destruction  of  their  liber 
ties  was  intended :  they  took  arms ;  but  were  only  aided  by 
Crema,  their  Platsea.     But  Crema  was  taken  and  razed,  and 

1162  soon  after  Milan  experienced  the  same  fate. 

The  emperor  now  proceeded  to  establish  the  most  absolute 
power  all  over  Lombardy.  In  vain  the  citizens"  implored; 
they  only  got  vague  hopes  of  redress.  But  the  principle  of 
liberty  was  strong,  and  the  Lombard  league  was  secretly 

167.  formed.  Frederic,  in  his  attempt  to  make  an  anti-pope,  was 
besieging  Rome ;  the  flower  of  his  army  fell  victims  to  the 
malaria  of  the  autumn,  and  he  was  obliged  to  recross  the  Alps. 
After  some  years  of  indecisive  warfare,  he  invaded  the  Mi 


CHAF.  Vr.       PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.        293 

ianese,  and  the  confederates  gave  him  battle  and  a  signal  de-  a.  n 
feat  at  Legnano.     A  truce  was  made  through  the  mediation  H'd 
of  Venice,  for  six  years;  and  at  length,  by  the  peace  of  Con- 
stance, the  cities  were  reinstated  in  their  independence,  re- 
serving the  imperial  superiority.  llSi 

The  Lombard  cities  were  afterwards  split  into  the  Guelf 
and  Ghibilm  factions,  which  we  shall  presently  explain :  they 
generally  sided  with  the  popes  against  the  emperors,  and 
were  continually  engaged  in  wars  with  one  another. 

Itali/ — Naples  and  Sicily. 

The  family  of  Roger  count  of  Sicily  had  gotten  the  regal  1166. 
dignity,  and  also  the  Italian  dominions  of  the  family  of  Rob- 
ert Guiscard.    William  the  Good  was  the  last  of  these  princes. 
Constantia,  his  aunt,  was  married  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI. ; 
but  on  the  death  of  William,  the  nobles,  who  dreaded  the  1186 
power  of  Henry,  raised  Tancred,  William's  natural  cousin,  to 
the  throne ;  a«d,  on  his  death,  his  infant  son  William  III.  1189. 
The  emperor  hastened  over  to  Sicily ;  defeated  his  opponents ;  1194. 
took  the  young  king  prisoner ;  led  him  to  Germany,  and  there 
treated  him  with  the  greatest  barbarity.     On  the  birth  of 
Frederic  II.,  Constantia  governed  Sicily  in  his  name,  and  on 
her  death,  the  pope.  Innocent  III.,  becoming  guardian  to  the  1200 
young  monarch,  endeavored  to  derive  from  that  circumstance 
all  the  advantages  he  could  for  the  holy  see. 

Germany — Swabian  Line. 

With  Henry  V.  ended  the  male  line,  of  the  Franconian  1129 
emperors.  Frederic  duke  of  Swabia,  grandson,  by  his  mother, 
of  Henry  IV.,  had  inherited  their  estates.  But  the  princes 
were  anxious  to  make  the  crown  really  elective,  and  many, 
besides,  entertained  a  strong  dislike  to  the  late  emperor.  The 
crown  was,  therefore,  bestowed,  with  some  opposition,  on  Lo- 
thaire  duke  of  Saxony.  As  chief  of  a  nation,  the  bitter  ene- 
mies of  the  house  of  Franconia,  Lothaire  did  every  thing  in 
his  power  to  depress  Frederic  and  Conrad  of  Hohenstauffen, 
'he  heads  of  the  Swabian  family,  and  to  secure  the  empire 
ror  his  son-in-law,  Henry  the  Proud,  duke  of  Bavaria,  de- 
scended from  Welf,  fourth  son  of  Azzo,  marquis  of  Este,  by 
Cunegonde,  heiress  of  the  Welfs  of  Altorf  in  Swabia.  Henry 
so  possessed,  through  his  mother,  Luneburg,  the  patrimony 
of  the  Billungs,  the  ancient  dukes  of  Saxony ;  and  by  his 
marriage  with  the  only  child  of  Lothaire  he  got  Hanover  ajid 
Brunswick,  the  patrimony  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  and  Lothaire 
tdded  the  duchy  of  Saxony. 

But  the  extent  of  his  possessions  was  prejudicial  to  Henry.  1138 

25* 


294  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IL 

On  the  death  of  Lothaire,  Conrad  of  Swabia  was  hastily 
elected  by  the  partisans  of  his  house,  and  the  Saxon  party 
was  forced  to  submit.  Conrad,  taking  advantage  of  the  jeal- 
ousy caused  by  the  large  possessions  of  Henry,  pretended 
that  two  duchies  could  not  legally  be  held  by  one  person,  and 
summoned  him  to  surrender  one  of  them.  Henry  refusing,  the 
diet  pronounced  both  to  be  forfeited,  and  Henry  was  speedily 
stripped  of  all  he  possessed.  The  factions  of  the  Guelfs  and 
Ghibilins  date  from  this  period :  the  former,  from  Welf,  de- 
note the  partisans  of  the  house  of  Saxony ;  the  latter,  from 
Wibelung  a  town  in  Franconia,  whence  the  emperors  of 
that  line  sprang  whom  the  house  of  Swabia  was  held  to  re- 
present As  the  latter  possessed  the  imperial  dignity  when 
these  names  were  transmitted  to  Italy,  the  Ghibilins  there 
were  the  partisans  of  the  emperor,  the  Guelfs  those  of  the 

A.  D    pope  and  his  other  opponents. 

1158  Conrad  III.,  when  dying,  though  he  had  a  son,  recom- 
mended to  the  electors  his  nephew,  Frederic  duke  of  Swabia, 
surnamed  Barbarossa  (Red-beard,)  and  he  was  elected  em- 
peror. Frederic  was  an  able,  politic  prince.  His  contests 
with  the  'ities  of  Lombardy  we  have  already  noticed,  in 
which  the  triumph  of  liberty  over  power  was  glorious  and 

lisa.  complete.  At  Rome  the  opposite  factions  had  elected  two 
rival  popes,  Victor  IV.  and  Alexander  III.  Frederic  sided 
with  the  former ;  the  kings  of  France  and  England,  and  the 
Lombard  cities,  with  the  latter.  After  the  battle  of  Legnano 
the  emperor  was  forced  to  acknowledge  Alexander,  by  kissing 
his  feet,  and  holding  his  stirrup  as  he  mounted  his  mule — 
new  inventions  of  the  servants  of  the  servants  of  Christ. 

The  emperor  Conrad  had  restored  Saxony  to  Henry  the 
Lion,  son  of  Henry  the  Proud.  Bavaria  had  been  bestowed 
on  the  margraf  of  Austria,  Henry's  guardians  having  re- 

1156.  nounced  it  in  his  name.  He  now  applied  to  Frederic,  who  was 
his  first  cousin,  and  whose  life  he  had  saved  at  Rome,  to  have 
it  restored.  Frederic  complied  with  his  desire,  and  they 
lived  for  several  years  in  harmony.  But  when  the  emperor 
was  leadmg  into  Lombardy  the  army  which  was  defeated  at 
Legnano,  Henry,  prompted  by  jealousy  or  ambition,  refused 
to  assist.  On  his  return,  Frederic  summoned  him  to  answer 
charges  in  a  diet.  Henry  refused  compliance,  and  his  pos- 
181.  sessions  were  confiscated  and  shared  among  his  enemies.  He 
now  implored  the  emperor's  mercy,  who  advised  him  to  re- 
tire to  England  till  the  present  possessors  could  be  prevailed 
on  to  relinquish  them.  The  duke  passed  three  years  at  the 
court  of  his  father-in-law  Henry  II.,  and  at  length  his  allodial 
estates  of  Saxony  were  restored  to  him.    Fifty  years  after. 


PHILLIP   AUGUSTUS   AT  ELM    OF   GISORS. 


I 

s. 


8 


CHAP.  VI.     PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.  297 

these  were  made  imperial  fiefs,  and  became  the  two  duchies 
of  Brunswick,  whose  dukes  are  the  representatives  of  Henry 
the  Lion,  and  inherit  the  name  of  Guelf. 

Saladin  having  now  taken  Jerusalem,  a  crusade  was  preach-  a.  d 
ed.    Frederic  took  the  cross,  and  passed  over  to  Asia  with  a  1188 
large  army ;  but,  bathing  on  a  hot  day  in  a  cold  mountain- 
Btream,  like  Alexander  in  the  Cydnus,  in  the  same  vicinity, 
he  caught  a  disorder,  and  died  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age. 

Henry  VI.,  the  Severe,  succeeded  his  father.  The  power  1190 
of  Henry  was  so  great  in  Germany,  that,  but  for  the  vigorous 
opposition  of  the  Saxons,  he  would  have  made  the  empire 
hereditary  in  his  family.  His  short  reign  was  chiefly  occu- 
pied in  making  himself  master  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  where 
he  exercised  the  most  atrocious  cruelty  against  his  opposers. 

Frederic  II.  was  but  two  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father.  1 1*)8 
Though  Henry  had  had  him  elected,  a  strong  party  of  the 
princes,  backed  by  Innocent  III.,  who  wished  to  reduce  the 
house  of  Swabia,  showed  a  disposition  to  retract  Philip 
duke  of  Swabia,  brother  to  the  late  emperor,  unable  to  secure 
the  succession  of  his  nephew,  got  himself  chosen  by  one 
party ;  the  other  chose  Otho,  son  of  Henry  the  Lion.  A  civil 
war  ensued,  in  which  Philip  was  victorious,  and  drove  Otho 
out  of  Germany ;  but  being  shortly  afterwards  assassinated 
by  the  count  palatine  of  Bavaria,  Otho  IV.  returned,  married 
the  daughter  of  Philip,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome,  resign- 
mg  the  inheritance  of  the  countess  Matilda  to  the  holy  see. 
But  Otho,  feeling  himself  strong,  revoked  his  concessions, 
and  the  pope  supported  Frederic  11.,  now  grown  up,  against 
him.  Otho  was  generally  deserted,  except  by  his  Saxons, 
and  Frederic  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Otho's  death  1813. 
in  1218  left  the  young  emperor  at  peace  in  Germany. 

But  it  was  in  Italy  that  Frederic  passed  the  greater  part 
of  his  reign.  On  his  accession  to  the  imperial  dignity  he  had 
taken  the  cross.  The  pope  was  continually  urging  him  to 
perform  his  vow;  but,  engaged  in  improving  and  benefiting 
his  Neapolitan  and  Sicilian  dominions,  he  neglected  to  comply. 
Honorius  III.  threatened  to  excommunicate  him,  but  Frederic  1226 
despised  the  threat.  He  and  the  pope  were  afterwards  recon- 
ciled. Greirory  IX.  having  declared  him  incapable  of  tlie  im- 
perial dignity  for  his  disobedience,  Frederic  ravaged  the 
patrimuxiy  of  the  church.  He  was  then  actually  excommuni-  1228 
cated,  and  tjie  usual  course  of  bloodshed,  jwisoning,  war,  and 
assassination  took  place  in  Italy.  At  length  Frederic  resolved 
to  perform  his  vow ;  but  the  pope  piv>hibited  his  departure  till 
he  should  be  absolved.  Frederic  went  in  contempt  cf  the 
cliurch,  and  was  more  successfid  than  any  of  the  preceding 


298  mSTORT  OF  the  world.  part  II 

4.  J,,  crusaders,  for  Jerusalem  and  its  territory  were  ceaed  to  him 

1230  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt. 

The  remainder  of  Frederic's  reign  was  a  continued  struggle 
with  tlie  holy  see.  All  Italy  was  split  into  the  Guelf  and 
Ghibilin  factions ;  the  pope  preached  a  crusade  against  Frede- 
ric,  and  excited  the  Lombard  cities  to  war,  and  his  son  Henry 
to  rebellion  against  him ;  but  the  emperor  was  everywhere 
successful.  The  succeeding  pontiffs,  Celestine  FV.  and  Inno- 
245.  cent  IV,,  followed  up  the  measures  of  Gregory.  On  the  death 
of  Henry,  who  had  been  king  of  tlie  Romans,  the  German 
bishops,  by  the  direction  of  Innocent,  who  had  deposed  Frede- 
ric, elected  Henry  landgraf  of  Thuringia,  and,  on  his  death, 

1248.  William  count  of  Holland.  Fortune  was  now  adverse  to 
Frederic ;   he  was  defeated  before  Parma,  and,  retiring  to 

1250  Naples  to  raise  an  army,  he  there  died  of  a  fever,  in  the  57th 
year  of  his  age.  Frederic  was  a  prince  of  great  endowments, 
and  a  zealous  patron  of  learning. 

Conrad,  son  of  Frederic,  and  his  rival  William,  did  not 
survive  many  years.  Richard  duke  of  Cornwall  and  Alfonso 
X.  of  Castile,  were  chosen  by  opposite  parties  of  the  electors ; 
but  for  twenty-three  years  there  may  be  said  to  have  been  an 
interreg7ium,  and   the   empire  without  a  recognized   head. 

1255.  During  this  period,  the  cities  on  the  Rhine  entered  into  a 
league  for  mutual  defence  in  their  commerce.     A  few  years 

1241.  before,  the  northern  cities  had  entered  into  the  celebrated 
Hanseatic  league  for  a  similar  purpose. 

France. 

Louis  Vn.,  the  Young,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  wise 
minister  the  abbe  Suger,  undertook  a  crusade  with  the  em- 

1147  peror  Conrad  III.  Both  were  equally  unsuccessful.  Eleanor, 
queen  of  Louis,  had  accompanied  him ;  but  having  had  an 

1149.  amour  with  a  young  Turk,  Louis,  on  his  return,  divorced  her, 
and  resigned  the  rich  territories  he  had  obtained  with  her. 
Henry  11.  of  England  then  married  Eleanor. 

lieo.  Philip  II.  Augustus,  son  of  Louis  VII.,  was  the  ablest 
monarch  France  had  seen  since  Charlemagne.  He  raised 
the  crown  of  France  from  the  state  of  degradation  it  had  been 
in,  by  reuniting  to  it  several  of  the  great  fiefs.  He  took  from 
the  count  of  Flanders  the  Vermandois  and  Artois.  When 
John  of  England  had  murdered  his  nephew  Arthur,  Philip 
summoned  him  as  his  vassal  to  be  tried  by  his  peers,  and,  on 
his  not  appearing,  he  seized  on  Normandy,  Maine,  and  Anjou, 
which  were  never  restored  to  the  English  crown.  Philip  had 
accompanied  Ricliard  I.  to  tlie  Holy  Land,  and  his  behavior  to 
that  prince  does  his  memory  little  credit 


CHAP.  VI.     PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.  299 

Louis  VIII.  had,  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  been  in-  *.  d 
vited  over  to  England  against  king  John  by  the  barons,  who  1223 
offered  him  the  crown.  He  met  in  that  expedition  but  slender 
success.  On  coming  to  the  throne,  he  attempted  the  con- 
quest of  the  remaining  dominions  of  the  English  kings  in 
France,  made  himself  master  of  Poitou,  and  was  on  the  point 
of  subjecting  Guienne,  when  he  was  drawn  away  to  Langue- 
doc,  where  the  pope  had  preached  a  crusade  against  the  Al-  1208 
bigeois,  and  Raymond  count  of  Toulouse  who  protected  them. 
More  than  the  usual  quantity  of  blood  had  been  shed  and  de- 
vastation committed  by  the  pope's  warriors,  led  on  by  the 
fanatic  hypocrite  Simon  de  Montfort.  This  chief  was  now 
dead ;  but  the  pope  was  unrelenting,  and  Louis  VIII.  was 
called  on  to  take  the  cross  against  the  son  of  Raymond,  and 
he  gave  up  the  conquest  of  Guienne  for  this  purpose.  But 
he  died  after  a  short  though  successful  war. 

Louis  IX.,  St.  Louis,  was  only  twelve  years  old  on  the  1226 
death  of  his  father ;  but  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  gov- 
erned during  his  minority  with  wisdom  and  vigor.  The  great 
vassals  made  several  attempts  to  recover  their  former  mde- 
pendcnce  ;  but  the  address  of  the  regent  always  triumphed 
over  them.  When  Louis  came  of  age,  he  fully  displayed  his 
estimable  qualities.  Such  were  the  moderation  and  justice 
of  this  good  king,  that,  so  far  from  encroaching  on  his  neigh- 
bors, he  even  made  restitution  of  what  they  had  been  unjustly 
deprived  of  He  restored  to  Henry  lU.  a  great  part  of  what 
he  had  lost  in  France,  and  he  always  sought  to  mediate  be- 
tween that  prince  and  his  barons.  Louis  administered  justice 
personally  to  all  who  sought  it;  and  he  drew  up  his  Establish- 
ments, the  first  code  compiled  by  the  Capetian  family.  The 
sole  blemishes  of  this  excellent  prince's  character  were,  his 
too  great  deference  for  his  mother,  and  his  superstition,  which  1248 
last  led  hun  to  undertake  two  crusades,  in  one  of  which  he 
lost  liis  army,  and  was  made  prisoner ;  in  the  other  he  ex- 
pired on  the  torrid  coast  of  Africa.  Yet  France  has  surely  1270 
reason  to  be  proud  of  St  Louis ;  for  a  monarch  his  equal  has 
rarely,  if  ever,  adorned  any  throne. 

England — the  Planlagenets. 

Henry  II.,  son  of  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  and  of  \\V 
Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  count  of  Anjou,  inherited  by  his  mother, 
England,  Normandy,  and  the  feudal  superiority  over  Britany; 
by  his  father,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Maine ;  and,  by  marrying 
Eleanor,  heiress  of  Guienne  and  Poitou,  whom  I^ouis  Vlf. 
had  divorced,  he  became  master  of  these  extensive  provinces. 
He  was  young,  brave,  talented,  amiable,  and   ambitious,  a 


300  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  H. 

formidable  rival  to  the  king  of  France.  Henry  gave  the 
feudal  system  a  blow,  by  substituting,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  the  practice  of  levying  a  scutage,  or  tax  on  each 
knight's  fee,  instead  of  personal  service,  and  with  that  nionej 

A.  D.  pa^ying  ^  mercenary  army.  He  sought  to  check  the  encroach- 

1164.  ments  of  the  papacy,  by  procuring  tlie  Constitutions  of  Cla- 
rendon to  be  passed,  by  which  the  permission  of  the  king 
was  ojade  requisite  to  the  taking  effect  of  any  papal  act,  and 
for  appeals  to  Rome ;  and  the  clergy  w^ere  to  be  tried  for  their 
crimes  in  the  lay  courts.  The  king's  chief  opponent  was 
Thomas  a  Becket,  whom  he  had  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 

'170.  bury,  and  the  contest  ended  in  the  murder  of  that  violent  but 
sincere  prelate.  Henry  invaded  and  partly  conquered  Ire- 
land. The  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  spent  in  opposing  the 
rebellions  of  his  own  sons,  actuated  by  the  king  of  PVance. 
Henry  II.  was  perhaps  the  ablest  king  that  ever  sat  on  the 
throne  of  England. 

I1(S9.  Richard  I.  succeeded,  as  his  brother  Henry  had  died  before 
his  father.  The  reign  of  this  monarch  was  almost  wholly  oc- 
cupied by  his  crusade  to  Palestine  with  Philip  of  France.  In 
the  East  he  performed  prodigies  of  valor ;  but,  on  his  return, 
was  seized  and  imprisoned  by  the  duke  of  Austria.  He  was 
ransomed  by  his  subjects,  but  soon  after  died  of  a  wound  he 
received  before  the  petty  fortress  of  Chains.  Military  skill 
and  valor  formed  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  Richard's  char- 
acter.    Hence  he  was  named  Cceur-de-Lion,  Lion-hearted. 

.199.  John  was  nominated  successor  by  his  brother  Richard ;  but 
Geoffrey,  duke  of  Britany,  an  elder  brother,  had  left  a  son 
named  Arthur.  As  John  was  detested,  the  claims  of  Arthur 
were  put  forward ;  and  the  barons  of  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Tou- 
raine  declared  for  him,  backed  by  the  king  of  France.  John 
ifterwards,  happening  to  take  his  nephew,  stabbed  him  with 
his  own  hand.  For  this  crime  the  king  of  France,  as  supe- 
rior lord,  summoned  him  to  answer  before  his  peers.  On  his 
not  appearing,  his  fiefs  were  declared  forfeited,  and  Philip  en- 
tered and  took  possession  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  and 
Touraine,  which  were  thus  united  for  ever  to  the  French 
crown.  John  now  quarrelled  with  the  pope,  the  intrepid  Inno- 
cent III. :  his  dominions  were  laid  under  interdict,  himself  de- 
posed, and  his  kingdom  bestowed  on  the  king  of  France.  The 
213  pusillanimous  John  submitted  to  hold  his  dominions  as  fiefs 
of  the  holy  see,  to  do  homage  for  them,  and  to  pay  1000 
marks  of  silver  annual  tribute.  His  subjects,  despising  and 
detesting  him,  seized  this  occasion  for  restraining  the  enor- 
mous prerogative  of  the  crown.  At  the  instigation  of  the 
primate  Langton,  the  barons  took  arms,  and  forced  the  king 


cai:r  of  edwaed  hi 


COIK  OF  UE5""'  17. 


COIS  or  EDWAED  HI. 


COIJJ  op  EXHBY  V. 


CHAP.  VI.      PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.         303 

to  sign,  at  Runnymead,  the  Magna  Charla,  tlie  great  charter  a.  d 
of  hberty  of  all  ranks  of  the  people.  Some  time  after,  having  1216 
taken  into  pay  a  body  of  mercenary  troops,  John  attempted  to 
annul  the  great  charter.  The  barons  in  their  despair  offered 
the  crown  to  Louis,  son  of  the  king  of  France,  who  invaded 
England ;  but  John  dyin^,  the  barons  returned  to  their  alle- 
giance, and  crowned  his  infant  son  Henry.  The  character  of 

John  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words  of  the  Roman  satirist, 
Monstrum  a  vitiis  nulla  virtute  redemptum. 

Henry  III.  beiiig  but  nine  years  old,  the  government  was  1216 
administered  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  mareschal  of  England, 
and  a  new  charter  of  liberties  was  granted,  which  conciliated 
all  orders.  As  Henry  grew  up,  the  defects  of  his  character 
became  apparent :  he  was  weak,  inactive,  and,  imprudently 
attached  to  his  relations  and  to  foreigners,  he  heaped  riches 
and  estates  upon  them  with  tlie  most  lavish  prodigality  :  for  a 
share  of  the  spoil,  he  concurred  in  the  monstrous  exactions 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  which  attained  their  height  in  this 
reign.  The  foolish  king,  being  offered  by  the  artful  pontiff 
the  crown  of  Naples  for  his  second  son,  lavished  great  sums 
of  money  in  that  wild  project.  The  barons  were  incensed  at 
all  his  acts  of  folly  and  injustice;  they  forced  him  to  renew 
in  the  most  solenm  manner  the  great  charter ;  but  hardly  had  1255 
the  weak  monarch  sworn  to  observe  it,  when  he  was  mduced 
by  his  favorite  to  transgress  it  as  before.  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  earl  of  Leicester,  himself  a  foreigner  and  son  of  the 
general  in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigeois,  called  on  the 
barons  to  take  arms  in  defence  of  their  rights  thus  trampled 
on  by  the  king's  foreign  favorites.  The  barons  appeared  in 
arms  in  the  next  parliament :  the  king  was  terrified,  and  si.b- 
mitted ;  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  were  made,  and  unlimited  1258 
power  was  given  to  twenty-four  barons,  with  Leicester  at 
their  head,  to  reform  the  state.  This  body,  like  the  decem- 
virate  of  old,  sought  to  make  itself  the  absolute  terror  of 

.ng  and  people :  the  tide  of  popularity  turned  against  it ;         * 
the  pope  released  Henry  and  his  subjects  from  their  oaths  to  12^2 
it,  and  the  king  resumed  his  authority.     Leicester,  who  had 
left  the  kingdom,  returned :  his  party  was  still  strong,  espe- 
cially in  London  and  the  towns;  he  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Welsh,  and  had  recourse  to  arms.  At  the  battle  of  Lewes  ISM 
he  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  his  son,  prince  Edward, 
giving  himself  in  exchange  for  him,  Leicester  detained  both. 
Edward  afterwards  escaped,  and  defeated  and  slew  Leicester 
at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  and  put  an  end  to  the  ci/il  war.  1265 
The  poor  old  king  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  peace.     His 
reign  was   .onger   than   that  of  any  English   king  except 


304  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11. 

4  D  George  III.    In  this  reign  the  house  of  comm\  ns  dates  its 

■*i5  origin ;  Leicester,  in  the  49th  year  of  the  king,  previously  to 

a  parliament  being  held  in  London,  having  issued  writs  to  the 

dherifS,  directing  them  to  return  two  knights  from  each  shire, 

and  two  burgesses  from  each  city  or  town. 

Ireland. 

Ireland  was  originally  peopled  by  a  portion  of  the  Keltic 
race,  who  we  may  suppose  passed  over  to  it  from  Britain,  ft 
had  always  been  divided  into  little  independent  states.  The 
manners  of  the  people  were  like  those  of  all  others  in  the 
same  condition  of  society.  Everlasting  petty  warfare,  murder, 
abduction,  and  similar  acts  of  violence  were  exhibited.  It  had 
been  converted  pretty  early  to  Christianity  by  Patricius,  a 
native  of  Britain.  Like  its  neighbors,  it  was  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Northmen,  who,  invincible  there  as  every- 
where else,  had  conquered  a  part  of  the  country.  Henry  II. 
had  cast  an  eye  of  cupidity  upon  it ;  and  the  pope  Adrian  IV., 
as  the  Irish  church  was  not  remarkable  for  obedience,  readily, 
in  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  conferred  the  dominion  of  it 
on  the  English  monarch.  An  occasion  for  interposing  soon 
occurred.  Dermot  M'Murrough,  king  of  Leinster,  carried 
off  the  wife  of  O'Ruarc  of  Breffhey  (Leitrim  and  Sligo) :  the 
latter  applied  to  Roderic  O'Connor,  king  of  Connaught,  the 
chief  of  the  five  provincial  monarchs,  and  Dermot  was  de- 
feated and  chased  out  of  his  dominions  by  their  united  forces. 
He  repaired  to  Henry  II.,  then  in  Guienne,  and  sought  his 
aid,  offering  to  acknowledge  himself  his  vassal.  Henry, 
being  then  engaged,  gave  him  letters,  empowering  any  ot 
his  English  subjects  who  pleased  to  engage  in  the  enterprise. 
Richard  earl  of  Pembroke,  surnamed  Strongbow,  and  tsome 
other  adventurers,  embarked  in  the  enterprise ;  and  thuugli 
their  numbers  were  small,  such  was  the  superiority  of  tlieii 
arms  and  their  skill,  that  they  overpowered  all  resistance. 
Henry  himself  appeared  in  Ireland,  and  received  the  homage 
172  of  its  princes.  But  the  conquest  was  merely  nominal ;  and  ages 
elapsed  before  Ireland  was  really  subdued.  It  is,  perhaps, 
not  unworthy  of  observation,  that  the  king  of  England  in- 
vaded Ireland  in  defence  of  adultery,  and  by  virtue  of  a  re- 
cognition of  the  power  of  the  pope  to  dispose  of  kingdoms. 
So  little  scrupulous  about  means  is  ambition,  so  heedless  of 
remote  consequences ! 

Spain. 

212.      Malik-en-Nasir  Mohammed,  the  Almohade  prince  of  Mo- 
rocco, crossed  the  sea  with  100,000  warriors,  and  he  was 


CHAP   VI.      PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.         Ow 

joined  by  the  Moors  of  Andalusia.     On  the  Navas  de  Tolosa, 
near  Ubeda,  his  army  was  engaged  (July  16)  by  the  united 
force  of  the  Christian  states  of  the  peninsula,  under  Alfonso 
VIII.  of  Castile ;  and  the  victory  of  that  day  established  the  a  t 
superiority  of  the  Christians  for  ever.  St.  Ferdinand,  grandson  123d 
of  Alfonso,  united  Castile  and  Leon.     He  conquered  Baeza  124a 
and  Cordova,  and,  eighteen  months  afterwards,  Seville,  in 
which  last  he  fixed  his  residence.    Cadiz  was  soon  obliged  to  125tt 
submit ;  and  the  Moors  were  now  confined  to  Granada. 

Jayme  I.  of  Aragon,  called  the  Conqueror,  drove  the  Moors  1229 
out  of  the  Balearic  Isles,  and  conquered  the  kingdoms  of 
Valencia  and  Murcia,  the  latter  of  which  he  gave,  according  1238 
to  agreement,  to  the  king  of  Ceistile. 

Portugal. 

Henry,  a  knight  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  having  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Toledo,  Alfonso  gave  him  his  1085 
daughter  in  marriage,  and  the  government  of  the  conquests 
of  the  kings  of  Leon  in  the  mountains  to  the  west.  Henry 
settled  himself  at  Guimaraens,  whence  he  continually  harassed 
the  Moors,  and  conquered  the  city  of  Porto.  His  son,  count 
Alfonso,  emulated  his  military  fame,  and  conquered  Alemtejo.  1112. 
The  Moorish  princes  collected  all  their  forces  on  the  plains  1139 
of  Ourique.  The  troops  of  Alfonso  were  greatly  inferior  in 
number ;  but  a  hermit  comforted  him  by  a  vision,  and  the 
faith  of  the  leader  was  communicated  to  his  soldiers.  The 
Moors  were  totally  routed,  and  Alfonso  was  saluted  king  of 
Portugal  by  his  army  on  the  field  of  battle.  Sancho,  son  of 
Alfonso,  was  valiant  as  his  father.  With  the  aid  of  some  cru- 
saders from  Germany  and  Holland,  who  put  into  the  Tagus, 
he  took  Silvas,  the  capital  of  Algarve;  but  the  Emir-el-Moo- 
menim,  or  prince  of  the  Almohades,  forced  him  to  resign  it 

The  Almohades. 

A  man,  named  Mohammed,  being  driven  out  of  Morocco,  1119 
where  he  professed  to  preach  Islam  in  greater  purity,  having, 
with  the  aid  of  his  disciple,  Abd-el-Moomen,  a  young  man  at 
Tremessen,  persuaded  the  Berbers  that  he  was  himself  the 
Mehedee,  or  doctor  of  the  law,  who,  he  preached,  was  to  be 
sent  to  purify  the  faith,  assumed  the  title  of  Mehedee,  and  at 
the  head  of  his  followers  waged  war  successfully  against  AH, 
the  Almoravide  king  of  Morocco.  His  followers  were  called 
Almohades.  He  fortified  the  city  of  Tinmal,  on  an  elevated 
and  inaccessible  position  on  Mount  Atlas,  and  made  it  the 
Beat  of  his  dominion.  They  were  called  to  the  defence  of  the 
Zeirides,  against  Roger  of  Sicily,  and  relieved  them.     Abd- 


306  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

el-Moomen  now  laid  siege  to  Morocco ;  the  Almoravides  de- 
fended it  with  their  usual  spirit ;  100,000  lives  were  consumed 
in  the  siege ;  the  Almohades  took  the  city,  and  extended  their 
A  D.  dominion  from  the  deserts  of  Barca  to  the  Atlantic.  They 
J 17.  passed  over  to  Spain,  and  conquered  the  Almoravide  domin- 
ions in  that  country. 

Persia. 

During  the  decline  of  the  house  of  Seljook,  a  number  of  petty 
princes,  governors  of  provinces,  and  others,  made  themselves 
independent.  The  title  of  these  princes  was  Atta-beg  ;*  they 
ruled  over  Aderbijan,  Fars,  and  Laristan,  and  each  line  of  Atta- 
begs  presents  the  uniform  character  of  eastern  rule.  These 
dynasties,  with  that  of  the  Assassins,  established  about  the  end 
of  the  eleventh  century  by  Hassan  Sabah,  were  gradually  over- 
thrown, some  by  the  sultan  of  Kliowaresm,  and  all  finally  ter- 
minated by  Hulagoo,  the  grandson  of  Chingis  Khan. 

Saladin. 

A  vizier  of  the  feeble  Fatemite  khalifs  called  on  Noor-ed- 
deen  Mohammed,  attabeg  of  Moussel,  who  had  conquered 
Syria,  to  come  to  the  support  of  the  Fatemite  empire.  The 
1171.  Turks  sent  by  him  under  Sheerkoo  conquered  Egypt.  The 
army  made  Saleh-ed-deen  (Saladin,)  nephew  of  Sheerkoo, 
governor,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  and  Noor-ed-deen  con- 
firmed him  in  his  office.  Saladin,  who  was  a  Koord  by  nation, 
placed  himself  on  the  throne  of  the  last  Fatemite  khalif,  and 
founded  his  dynasty,  called  the  Ayubides.  He  conquered 
Syria  from  the  family  of  Noor-ed-deen.  He  also  reduced  the 
Happy  Arabia,  and  took  Tripoli  and  Tunis  from  the  Almo- 
hades. He  now  turned  his  arms  against  Jerusalem.  He  en- 
tered the  country  at  the  north ;  and  as  he  was  besieging  Ti- 
berias, Guy  de  Lusignan,  with  all  the  forces  of  his  kingdom, 
<ame  against  him.  Saladin  surprised  them,  cut  them  to 
pieces,  and  took  Guy  prisoner.  All  the  cities  submitted  at  his 
approach;  and  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  siege  Jerusalem 
1188.  opened  her  gates.  The  conqueror  acted  with  the  greatest 
mildness ;  the  Christians  were  left  in  possession  of  the  holy 
sepulchre ;  free  egress  was  given  to  all. 

The  news  filled  Europe  with  consternation  :  a  crusade  was 
preached,  and  a  large  army  collected,  which  sailed  for  the 
Holy  Land,  under  Richard  I.  and  Philip  Augustus.  But  the 
genius  and  resources  of  Saladin,  and  the  discord  of  the  con- 

•  Atta-beg  signifies  fathcr-priiicc,  and  was  the  title  assumed  by  those, 
who,  like  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  iiiidor  the  Merovingian  line  in  Francn 
governed  under  the  name  of  some  legitimate  prince. 


CHAP.  VI.    PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.  309 

federates,  prevented  the  accomplishment  of  its  objects.  Sala-  k.  d. 
dm  died  in  his  57th  year  at  Damascus.  The  virtues  of  this  ^19* 
prince  have  been  alike  celebrated  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  Mamelukes. 

Malek-el-Adel,  the  brother  of  Saladin,  dispossessed  hia 
children  of  the  dominions  of  their  father.  After  ascending 
the  throne  he  resigned  it  to  his  own  sons.  In  the  reign  of 
Malek-el-Moattam,  the  last  of  tlic  descendants  of  Malek-el- 
Adel,  St  Louis  undertook  the  crusade  in  which  he  and  his  1249 
army  were  made  prisoners  in  Egypt.  The  sultan  released 
them  for  a  heavy  ransom,  and  the  towns  tliat  had  been  taken. 

The  Mamelukes  (guards  formed  by  Saladin  from  Cauca- 
sian slaves,)  who  had  long  felt  their  own  power,  and  whose 
commanders  were  offended  at  any  measure  of  importance 
being  taken  without  their  consent,  were  highly  incensed  at  1250 
this  peace.  They  murdered  the  sultan,  and  set  in  his  place 
one  of  their  own  commanders,  Az-ed-deen  Aybeg.  They 
then  arranged  the  government,  so  that  the  sultan  and  vizier 
should  consult  the  emirs  in  all  matters  of  importance ;  that 
there  should  be  a  great  cadi,  and  a  cadi  for  each  of  the  four 
orthodox  sects  of  Islam,  to  administer  justice.  Their  num- 
bers were  kept  up  by  supplies  fi-om  their  native  country ;  and 
for  two  centuries  and  a  half  the  Mamelukes  ruled  over  Egypt. 
Rarely  a  son  lived  to  succeed  his  father:  often  a  favorite  * 
slave  or  a  brave  soldier  was  seated  on  the  vacant  throne. 

Constantinople. 

Alexius,  the  young  son  of  Manuel  Comnenus,  was  mur-  1183 
dered  by  his  relative  Andronicus,  who  reigned  two  years, 
and  was  then  dethroned  and  put  to  death  by  Isaac  Angelua  .  J85 
Isaac,  a  prince  of  some  good  qualities,  was  robbed  of  the  em- 
pire, and  blinded  by  his  own  brother,  Alexius  III.     His  son  119 
Alexius  fled  to  the  West  to  seek  for  aid ;  and  as  the  fourth 
crusade  was  then  preparing  to  set  out  for  Asia,  he  persuaded 
its  commanders  to  assist  in  restoring  his  father  to  Ais  throne, 
engaging,  in  case  of  success,  to  supply  them  vith  provisions, 
and  to  pay  them  a  large  sum  of  money.     His  offers  were  ac- 
cepted.    Constantinople  was  taken,  Isaac  released,  and  his 
son,  Alexius  IV.,  placed  on  the   throne.     Alexius  and   his 
father  were  murdered  by  his  cousin,  named  Murzufle  (Alexius  1204 
v.).    Under  the  pretext  of  avenging  Alexius,  the  crusaders 
took  and  plundered  the  city,  and  placed  Baldwin  count  of 
Flanders  on  the  vacant  throne,  assigning  him  a  fourth  of  the 
empire,  and  dividing  the  remainder  among  themselves. 

Three  states  were  formed  by  the  Greeks.     Theodore  La* 


310  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

caris,  son-in-law  of  Alexis  III.,  established  himself  in  Nice. 
and,  under  the  title  of  emperor,  governed  a  great  part  of 
Lesser  Asia.     One  of  the  Comnenian  family  settled  at  Tre- 
bisond,  on  the  eastern  end  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  was  also 
styled  emperor.     Another  Comnenian,  of  the  family  of  Ai- 
gelus,  ruled,  mider  the  title  ot"  despot,  over  a  principality  in 
Epirus,  ^tolia,  and  Thessaly. 
4,.  D.      Baldwin  reigned  but  one  year ;  he  was  taken  prisoner  and 
1205.  cruelly  put  to  death  by  the  Bulgarians.    His  brother  and  suc- 
1216  cessor,  Henry,  an  abler  prince,  died  by  poison.     The  throne 
then  came  to  his  brother-in-law,  Peter  de  Courtenay,  grand- 
son of  Louis  VL,  and  his  children. 

John  Lascaris  and  his  son  governed  their  Asiatic  empire 

with  prudence  and  valor.     His  grandson,  of  the  same  name 

came  to  the  throne  a  minor,  and  was  murdered  by  Michael 

4261.  Palseologus,  one  of  whose  generals  retook,  in  one  night,  the 

imperial  city,  which  the  Latins  had  held  but  fifty-seven  years, 

The  Crusades. 

The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  continually  harassed  by 
its  Mohammedan  neighbors  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  orders  of  the  Templars  and  the  Hospitalers,  and 
the  constant  accession  of  volunteers  from  Europe,  enabled  it 
to  resist  its  enemies ;  and  prodigies  of  valor  equal  to  any  in 
romance  were  achieved  by  the  warriors  of  the  cross.  But  in 
less  than  half  a  century  after  the  conquest,  the  state  of  Edessa 
having  been  subdued  by  the  attabeg  of  Moussel,  more  power- 
ful aid  was  deemed  requisite,  and  St.  Bernard  preached  a  new 
crusade.    At  his  persuasion,  the  cross  was  assumed  by  Loui» 

147.  VIL  of  France  and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany.  The  number 
of  all  ranks  engaged  in  this  crusade  is  estimated  at  300,000. 
The  Germans  went  first,  and  the  same  ravages  which  had 
disgraced  the  first  crusade  occurred  also  in  this.  The  Greek 
emperor,  Manuel,  was  terrified  at  their  numbers,  and  em- 
ployed artifice  to  get  rid  of  them.  They  passed  over ;  and 
the  imprudence  of  Conrad  caused  him  to  march  into  the  hear! 
48.  of  Lesser  Asia,  where  his  troops  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
sultan  of  Iconium.  Conrad  fled  to  the  French  army,  and 
then  returned  to  Constantinople.  Louis  pursued  his  march  • 
near  Laodicea  he  sustained  a  partial  defeat;  but  he  reached 
Antioch,  and  thence  proceeded  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  he  and 
his  troops  aided  at  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Damascus. 

18f  When  intelligence  arrived  in  Europe  of  the  capture  of  Je- 
rusalem by  Saladin,  the  utmost  grief  and  indignation  pre- 
.iSa  vailed;  and  Clement  III.  ordered  a  crusade  to  be  preached 
everywhere.     The  emperor,  Frederic  Barbarossa,  assembled 


CHAP.  VI.      PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.         311 

a  diet  at  Mentz,  where  he  and  his  son  Frederic,  and  the 
greatest  of  the  German  nobles,  took  the  cross.  The  same 
was  done  by  Richard  I.  and  Philip  Augustus.  It  was  not  now, 
as  in  the  first  crusade,  piety  that  actuated  these  kings  and 
nobles, — that  motive  had  given  place  to  the  passion  for  mili- 
tary fame  and  glory. 

The  emperor,  on  marshalling  his  forces,  found  them  to 
amoimt  to  100,000  fighting  men,  care  having  been  taken  to 
keep  off  the  beggarly  rabble  which  had  attended  the  former 
expeditions.  He  marched  through  Hungary  into  the  Greek 
territories,  where  the  emperor,  Isaac  Angelus,  harassed  the 
crusaders  as  far  as  he  was  able.  Frederic  laid  the  country 
under  contribution,  cut  to  pieces  the  Greek  troops,  and  made 
the  emperor  sue  for  peace.  He  wintered  at  Adrianople,  passed 
over  to  Asia  in  spring,  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  battles, 
took  Iconium,  and  crossed  Mount  Taurus.  But  coming  on  a 
sultry  day  (June  10th)  to  the  Selef,  a  gelid  mountain-stream,  a.  d 
he  threw  himself  into  its  waters,  and  was  unfortunately  1190 
drowned. 

Richard  of  England,  Philip  of  France,  Henry  count  of 
Champagne,  Thibaut  of  Blois,  Philip  of  Flanders,  and  numer- 
ous other  princes  and  nobles,  collected  their  forces  on  the 
plain  of  Vezelay,  and  found  them  to  amount  to  100,000  fight-  1190 
ing  men.  Aware  of  the  evils  that  had  attended  tlie  former 
land  expeditions,  they  resolved  to  convey  their  forces  by  sea. 
Richard  led  his  troops  to  Marseilles,  Philip  his  to  Genoa, 
where  they  embarked.  The  appointed  place  of  rendezvous 
was  Messina ;  and  while  they  staid  there,  various  incidents 
occurred  to  excite  jealously  and  disunion  between  the  mon- 
archs.  Driven  by  a  storm  to  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  Richard  de- 
posed, for  his  cruelty  to  the  crews  of  some  of  his  ships,  Isaac 
Comnenus,  who  tyrannized  over  the  island,  and  sold  the  sove- 
reignty of  it  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  in 
whose  family  it  continued  for  three  hundred  years. 

An  army  of  Christians,  aided  by  the  slender  remains  of 
that  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  was  besieging  Acre,  or  Ptole- 
mais.  After  a  heroic  resistance,  it  was  forced  to  surrender  to 
the  emulative  valor  of  Richard  and  Philip.  But  the  latter, 
instead  of  pursuing  this  success,  jealous  of  the  superior  fame 
of  the  English  monarch,  returned  to  Europe,  under  the  pre- 
text of  ill  health,  leaving  10,000  of  his  troops,  under  the  duke 
of  Burgundy.  The  siege  of  Ascalon  was  now  resolved  on 
The  Chri-stian  army  marched  along  the  sea-coast:  Saladin 
collected  all  his  strength  to  opj)ose  them :  a  bloody  and  well- 
contested  battle  took  place.  Nothing  could  resist  the  valor 
and  imoetuosity  of  Richard;  8000  of  the  Moslems  were  left  li"'2 


312  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORIiD.  PART  EL 

dead.  Ascalon  and  Joppa  were  razed  by  Salad  in  al  their  ap- 
proach ;  the  crusaders  came  within  sight  of  the  holy  city ; 
but  the  fickle  king  of  England  was  weary  of  the  war,  and 
anxious  to  return  home.  A  truce  was  concluded  with  Sala- 
dm,  by  which  the  Christians  were  to  hold  Ptolemais,  Joppa, 
and  other  sea-ports,  and  to  visit  the  holy  sepulchre  unmolested. 
The  gallant  Richard  was,  on  his  return  through  Germany, 
basely  thrown  into  prison  by  Leopold  duke  of  Austria,  whom 
he  had  offended  at  Ptolemais. 

A  D       The  fourth  crusade  was  composed  of  French  and  Germans 

1202.  led  by  Baldwin  count  of  Flanders.  The  Venetians  fiimished 
ships.  Its  first  efforts  were  directed  against  the  city  of  Zara 
in  Dahnatia,  which  had  revolted  from  Venice,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  pope's  excommunication,  it  was  reduced.  The  arms 
of  the  faithfiil  were  now  directed   against  Constantinople, 

1204.  which,  as  we  have  seen,  they  took,  placing  their  leader  on 
the  throne.  In  the  partition,  Venice  got  the  island  and  the 
Morea,  the  marquis  of  Montferrat  Thessaly,  Ville  Hardouin 
(the  historian  of  this  conquest)  Achaia,  and  Otto  de  la  Roche, 
a  Burgundi£in,  became  duke  of  Athens. 

1216.  The  fifth  crusade  was  chiefly  composed  of  Germans  and 
the  neighboring  people ;  Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hungary,  was 
its  commander.  The  main  body  marched  to  Italy,  to  embark 
in  its  ports ;  others  sailed  from  the  ports  of  Saxony,  and,  being 
driven  by  a  storm  into  Lisbon,  were  prevailed  on  by  Don 
Sancho  to  assist  him  against  the  Moors.  The  king  of  Hun- 
gary and  his  troops,  with  the  king  of  Cyprus,  landed  at 
Ptolemais,  where  John  de  Brienne,  the  titular  king  of  Jeru- 
salem, gladly  received  them.  They  attempted  in  vain  to  take 
Tabor ;  were  obliged  to  divide  for  subsistence ;  the  king  of 
Cyprus  died,  and  the  king  of  Hungary  found  it  necessary  to 
return  home.  On  being  joined  by  the  fleet  from  Portugal,  it 
was  resolved  in  council  to  besiege  Damietta,  in  Egypt.     An 

i219.  army,  led  by  the  sultan  to  its  relief,  was  defeated.  The  duke 
of  Austria  and  his  forces  now  returned  home ;  but  a  rein- 
forcement arrived,  under  the  cardinal  Albano,  to  whom,  as 
the  officer  of  the  pope,  John  de  Brienne  was  obliged  to  re- 
sign the  command,  and  the  military  priest  injudiciously  led 
his  army  between  two  branches  of  the  Nile,  at  the  season 
that  river  was  beginning  to  overflow.  The  sultan  opened  the 
sluices,  and  burned  the  ships  of  the  Christians,  who  were 
221.  forced  to  restore  Damietta,  and  bind  themselves  not  to  serve 
for  eight  years  against  the  sultan. 

1228.  The  emperor  Frederic  II.,  who  had  long  promised,  at 
length  sailed  to  the  East.  He  did  not  spill  any  blood ;  but  he 
made  an  advantageous  treaty  with  Malek-el-Kamel,  sultan  of 


EDWARD  II. 


EDWARD  III. 


RICHARD  II.  , 


HENRY  IV. 


HENRY  V. 


HENRY  VI. 


CH/v*    VI.     PAPAL  POWER  AT  ITS  GREATEST  HEIGHT.         ol5 

Egypt,  wno  ceded  to  him  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  and  all  the 
villages  between  the  former  place  and  Jaffa,  and  Ptolemais. 

The  Khowaresmians,  flying  before  the  Mongols,  had  poured  j^  p, 
down  on  Lower  Asia,  and  had  seized  on  Syria  and  Palestine.  i2M 
St.  Louis,  having  in  a  fit  of  sickness  vowed  a  crusade,  he 
collected  a  fine  army,  and  sailed  for  the  East.  He  resolved 
to  commence  by  reducing  Egypt,  and  landed  at  Damietta, 
which  was  abandoned  to  him.  But  his  troops  were  wasted 
by  sickness,  and  defeated  at  Massoor,  where  his  brother  Rob- 
ert of  Artois  was  killed  at  his  side,  and  himself,  his  two  bro- 
thers, and  all  his  chief  nobility  taken  prisoners.  At  the  price 
of  a  large  ransom  and  the  city  of  Damietta  they  were  set  at 
Uberty.  1250 

Twenty  years  afterwards,  this  excellent  monarch,  whose  1270 
only  defect  almost  was  superstition,  sailed  with  another  expe- 
dition for  the  Holy  Land ;  but  hearing  that  the  king  of  Tunis 
was  inclined  to  embrace  Christianity,  he  directed  his  course 
thither.  Finding  the  intelligence  to  be  false,  he  laid  siege  to 
the  city ;  but  he  here  caught  a  fever  and  died,  and  with  him 
died  the  spirit  of  the  crusades.  Edward,  son  of  our  Henry  III., 
revived  the  fame  of  Richard ;  but  the  Latin  power  gradually  129] 
declined,  and  Acre,  its  last  seat,  fell  to  the  sultan  of  Egypt. 

The  crusades,  though  originating  in  folly  and  superstition, 
and  productive  of  a  large  quantity  of  positive  sufl^ering  to 
both  Europe  and  Asia,  have,  in  the  order  of  Providence,  been 
also  productive  of  good.  They  awoke  the  mind  of  Europe 
from  its  slumber  of  ignorance  and  barbarism,  by  bringing  it 
into  contact  with  the  more  polished  nations  of  the  East ;  they 
enlarged  the  sphere  of  ideas,  gave  a  taste  for  elegance  and 
refinement,  extended  navigation  and  commerce,  and  thereby 
increased  the  wealth  and  power  of  cities ;  they  diminished 
the  property  and  influence  of  the  factious  and  tyrannic  nobles, 
and  enlarged  the  authority  of  monarchs.  The  degree  of  in- 
tercourse that  prevailed  between  Europe  and  Asia,  during 
the  period  of  the  crusades,  was  far  beyond  what  we  usually 
conceive.  It  has  not  become  adequately  known  until  very 
recently. 

The  Mongols — Chingis  Khan. 

In  the  ancient  country  of  this  race,  a  great  khan  who  hail 
ruled  over  .30,000  families  on  the  banks  of  the  Selinga  had 
died,  leaving  his  son  Temujin  a  child.  The  horde  separated, 
and  Temujin,  when  he  grew  up,  found  only  thirteen  families 
adhering  to  him.  He  distinguished  himself  by  valor,  talent, 
and  generosity.  In  an  assembly  of  the  nation  on  the  Selinga, 
one  of  their  wise  men  arose  and  said,  ho  had  had  a  vision,  jn 


$16  msTORT  or  thb  woslo.  past  n. 

which  he  saw  the  great  God  of  lieaven  sitting  on  his  tlirone 
A  D.  in  council,  and  heard  sentence  given  that  Temujin  should  be 
1206.  Chingis  Khan,  i.  e.  Greatest  Khan.     The  Mongols  raised 
their  hands,  and  swore  to  follow  their  Chingis  Klian  whither- 
soever he  went. 

He  first  invaded  China,  overthrew  the  dynasty  of  Song 
and  took  Yen  King,  their  capital.  He  conquered  Corea,  then 
turned  westward,  subdued  Tibet,  penetrated  to  Cashmeer, 
and  to  the  borders  of  Khowaresm,  whose  sultan  had  van- 
quished the  dynasty  of  Ghaur,  and  ruled  over  nearly  all  Per 
sia,  and  a  great  portion  of  Hindostan.  The  sultan  Ala-ed-deen 
Mohammed  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  400,000  men,  was 
defeated,  and  his  country  subdued.  His  son,  Jellel-ed-deen 
Mohammed,  heroically,  but  in  vain,  resisted  the  conquerors. 
The  shores  of  the  Caspian  were  conquered.  The  tsar  of  Rus- 
sia advanced  with  a  large  army  to  the  Galea,  was  defeated 
1227.  and  put  to  flight.  Chingis  Khan  gave  laws  and  regulations 
to  the  Mongols,  and  died  in  the  64th  year  of  his  age. 

The  sons  of  Chingis,  Octal,  Joojee  or  Tooshee,  Toolee,  and 
Jagatai,  and  their  sons,  Gooyookh,  Batoo,  Hoolagoo,  and 
Kublai,  followed  up  his  conquests.  Resistance  was  every- 
1241.  where  overborne.  Alexander  Nevski,  the  great  duke  of  Rus- 
sia and  conqueror  of  Livonia,  was  overthrown ;  his  successor 
was  forced  to  fly  to  Poland,  and  tlie  house  of  Ruric  reduced  to 
such  dependence,  that  for  two  hundred  years  it  paid  tribute 
to  the  khan  of  the  golden  horde. 

This  conquest  was  achieved  by  Batoo,  son  of  Joojee,  who 
then  led  his  army  to  the  confines  of  Europe.  Poland  offered 
no  resistance.  Batoo  took  and  burned  Cracow.  Bela  IV., 
king  of  Hungary,  gave  him  battle,  but  was  utterly  defeated. 
The  Mongols  advanced  and  burned  Breslau.  The  emperor 
Frederic  II.  and  the  pope  called  on  all  Europe  to  aid.  Crowda 
of  volunteers  joined  the  standard  of  Henry  duke  of  Lower 
1245  Silesia.  The  battle,  one  of  the  bloodiest  ever  fought  against 
the  orientals,  was  given  at  WoUstadt,  near  Lignitz,  and  lost. 
The  whole  country  was  deserted ;  but  the  Mongols  cculd  not 
form  sieges,  and  they  retired. 

Kublai,  son  of  Toolee,  completed  tlie  conquest  of  China. 

End  of  the  Khalifat  at  Bagdad. 

Hoolegoo,  the  grandson  of  Chingis,  undertook  the  conquest 
of  Bagdad.  The  Mongols  advanced,  treachery  aided,  and  the 
City  of  Peace  was  taken.  In  the  656th  year  of  the  Hegira, 
the  56th  successor  of  the  prophet  was  trodden  beneath  the 
feet  of  the  horses  of  the  Mongols.  Bagdad  was  plundered 
during  forty  days,  and  200,000  persons  slaughtered.     Th 


L.IAF    Vll.  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  317 

Btroiig-holds  of  the  Assassbs  were  taken,  and  that  sect  de- 
stroyed.    The  Mong-ols  took  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  and  en-  a.  q 
tered  the  Holy  Land.    Seif-ed-deen,  the  Mameluke  sultan  of  1260 
Egypt,  defeated  them  there,  and  his  successor,  Bibers,  drove 
them  out  of  Syria. 

Hakem  bi-emr-illah  Ahmed  Mostaser  of  the  house  of  Abbas  1262 
fled  to  Bibers,  who  received  him  kindly,  and  gave  him  an  es- 
tablishment at  Cairo ;  and  for  two  centuries  and  a  half  tlie 
soiccessors  of  the  prophet  lived  on  the  bounty  of  the  Mameluke 
ultana 


CHAP.  VIL 

DECLINK    OP   THK    PAPAL   POWER,    AND    FORMATION    Or   GREAT 
MONARCHIES. 

Italy — The  Popes. 

The  high  assumptions,  the  intolerable  rapacity,  and  the 
extreme  corruption  of  the  court  of  Rome,  were  gradually 
ilienating  from  it  all  orders  of  men.  Tlie  clergy  were  in- 
censed at  the  heavy  taxes  imposed  on  them,  the  invasion  of 
tlie  rights  of  patronage,  and  the  favor  shown  to  the  mendicant 
orders ;  and  even  some  of  the  latter  began  to  declaim  against 
ts  corruption  and  vices.  In  this  state  of  affairs  Boniface  VIII. 
obtained  the  triple  crown,  and,  not  attending  to  the  signs  of 
the  times,  endeavored  to  raise  the  papal  power  to  a  higher 
point  than  it  had  yet  attained,  but  thereby  only  showed  its 
real  weakness. 

Edward  I.  and  Philip  the  Fair  began  to  attack  the  revenues 
af  the  church.  The  pope  left  the  former  and  his  clergy  to 
themselves ;  but  when  Philip  t<axed  those  of  France  without 
their  consent,  Boniface  issued  a  bull,  forbidding  the  clergy  of 
every  kingdom  to  pay  any  thing  without  his  permission.  But 
the  French  clergy  adhered  to  their  Iting,  and  he  and  the  pope 
became  reconciled.  Somf  years  afterwards  the  bishop  of  130 
Pamiers,  as  legate  of  the  pope,  behaved  with  great  disrespect 
to  the  king,  and,  as  he  was  his  subject,  Pliilip  put  him  under 
arrest.  Boniilice,  in  a  rage,  issued  several  bulls,  in  one  of 
which  he  asserted  that  the  king  was  subject  to  him  in  tempo- 
ral as  well  as  in  spiritual  matters.  Philip  had  the  bulls  pub- 
licly burnt  at  Paris,  and  summoned  the  states-gejipral  of  his 
kmgdom,  who  disclaimed,  in  the  fullest  manner,  tire  temporal 
luthority  of  the  pope. 

Boniface  held  a  council  at  Rome,  m  which  he  promul^ted 
27* 


'        318  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  n 

his  constitution  of  Unam  sanctam,  by  which  he  declares  the 
church  to  be  one  body  under  one  head,  possessing  two  swords  • 
one  spiritual,  to  be  wielded  by  the  pope  himself;  the  other 
temporal,  to  be  used  by  kings  and  knights  at  his  will,  and 
with  his  permission.     But  the  latter  must  be  subject  to  the 
former,  for  every  human  being  is  in  subjection  to  the  see  of 
Rome.     He  concludes  another  bull  thus: — "Since  such 
our  pleasure,  who,  Dy  divine  permission,   rule  the  world. 
Finding  Philip  still  refractory,  he  excommunicated  him,  giv 
ing  his  kingdom  to  the  empercv-  Albert  I.,  and  was  then  abou 
to  absolve  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance.     Philip  now  as- 
serted that  Boniface  was  not  legally  elected,  and  appealed  to 
a  general  council  and  a  lawful  pope.     But  he  at  the  same 
time  ventured  on  an  act  of  fortunate  temerity :  he  secretly 
sent  into  Italy  a  gentleman  named  Nogaret,  who,  with  the 
aid  of  Sciarra  Colonna,  who  was  persecuted  by  the  pope, 
seized  him  in  the  town  of  Anagni,  whither  he  was  gone  with- 
out guards.     On  the  third  day  the  neighboring  gentry  came 
to  his  rescue ;  but  the  haughty  pontiff  was  so  mortified  at 

A.  D.  what  had  befallen  him,  that  his  rage  brought  on  a  fever, 

i302.  which  terminated  his  days.  His  successor,  Benedict  XL,  re- 
scinded the  bulls  against  Philip,  and  thereby  showed  tlie  real 
decline  of  the  papacy  since  the  days  of  Innocent. 

1305.  Clement  V.,  who  had  been  archbishop  of  Bourdeaux,  re- 
moved, at  the  desire  of  the  king  of  France,  the  papal  chair  to 
Avignon,  where  it  continued  under  his  six  successors,  all  of 
whom  were  French,  for  a  space  of  seventy  years. 

The  Avignon  pontiffs  were  engaged  in  a  long  contest  with 
the  emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  in  which  they  asserted,  that 
though  the  power  of  choosing  an  emperor  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  certain  electors,  the  popes  still  retained  the  right  of 
approving  the  choice,  and  of  receiving  an  oath  of  fealty  from 
the  emperor  on  his  coronation.  This  quarrel  originated  in 
the  attempts  of  tlie  emperors  to  regain  their  imperial  rights 

1323.  in  Italy.  In  the  course  of  the  contest  Louis  was  excommu- 
nicated, and  his  subjects  released  from  their  allegiance ;  but 
they  remained  firm  to  him,  and  if  Louis  himself  had  acted 
with  more  vigor,  he  would  have  come  off  victor  in  the  con- 
test. 

1338  But  though  thus  apparently  triumphant  over  the  emperor, 
the  papal  power  was  gradually  losing  ground.  The  diet  of 
Frankfort  positively  denied  all  right  of  the  pope  to  interfere 
in  imperial  elections.  Scholastic  science  had  inured  men  to 
thought,  and  tliey  began  to  employ  their  mother-tor  gues  as 
its  organ  :  men  of  learning  and  patriotism  assailed  the  found- 
ations of  the  oapal  edifice,  and  the  ballad  and  the   ale  ex- 


PUNISHMSNT   OB    THE    RnoOT. 


POPE    EONIFACE    VIII.    ATTACKED   IN   THE  CHURCH. 


CHAP.  VII.         DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  321 

posed  the  profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  church.  A  portion 
of  the  Franciscan  friars,  whom  John  XXII.  persecuted  for 
some  follies,  loudly  proclaimed  the  pope  to  be  Antichrist,  and 
supported  the  emperor  Louis.  The  rapacity  of  the  papal  court 
now  passed  all  bounds.  John  XXII.  imposed  the  tax  of  an- 
nates, or  first-fruits,  on  all  benefices,  to  be  paid  into  the  papal 
chancery ;  the  same  pontiff  reseruetZ  to  himself  all  the  bishop- 
rics in  Christendom.  Benedict  XII.  assumed  the  right  of  dis- 
posing of  all  benefices  vacant  by  cession,  translation,  or  de- 
privation. Empire  had  been  the  object  of  tlie  former  popes: 
money  that  of  tliese  more  low-minded  pontiffs. 

The  wishes  of  Italy  and  of  Europe,  joined  with  the  evils  a.  d. 
arising  from  absence  from  Rome,  induced  Gregory  XI.  to  re-  1376 
move  the  papal  chair  back  to  that  city.  Soon  after  occurred 
the  famous  schism.  On  the  death  of  Gregory,  the  cardinals,  1378 
who  were  mostly  French,  assembling  to  elect  a  successor,  the 
populace  collected  and  insisted  on  his  being  an  Italian.  The 
archbishop  of  Bari,  a  Neapolitan,  was  elected,  and  he  took 
the  name  of  Urban  VI.  For  some  weeks  the  cardinals  obeyed 
him ;  but,  disgusted  with  the  harshness  of  his  temper,  they 
conspired  against  him,  and  he  threw  several  of  them  into 
prison :  the  rest  fled  to  Fondi,  and,  with  the  opinion  of  Nic- 
colo  Spinelli,  the  great  Neapolitan  lawyer,  they  proceeded  to 
a  new  election,  under  the  pretext  of  the  last  having  been  ef- 
fected by  intimidation.  They  chose  the  cardinal  Robert,  who 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  and  fixed  his  seat  at  Avignon. 
Urban  tortured  and  even  executed  some  of  the  cardinals  -and 
prelates  who  were  his  prisoners. 

Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  the  North  adhered  to  Urban; 
France,  Spain,  Scotland,  and  Sicily  to  Clement.  All  wished 
both  to  resign,  and  the  cardinals  to  proceed  to  a  new  elec- 
tion ;  but  neither  party  would  recede.  Three  pontiffs  suc- 
ceeded Urban;  Benedict  XIII.  was  the  only  successor  of 
Clement.  The  cardinals  on  both  sides  at  last  deserted  their 
heads,  and  a  general  council  was  summoned  to  meet  at  Pisa.  1409. 
In  this  assembly  the  two  pontiffs,  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict 
XIII.,  were  deposed,  and  Alexander  V.  elected ;  but  Spain 
adhered  to  Gregory,  and  Benedict  was  supported  by  others, 
80  that  now  there  were  three  rival  pontiffs.  Another  council  1414 
was  held  at  Constance,  in  which,  under  the  pretext  of  his 
enormous  vices,  John  XXIII.,  Alexander's  successor,  was 
leposed ;  Gregory  submitted,  and  the  obstinate  Benedict  was 
deposed.  Otto  Colonna,  a  man  of  great  prudence,  was  elected 
under  the  name  of  Martin  V. 

To  curb  the  papal  power,  to  reduce  the  government  of  the 
church  f-om  an  absolute  to  a  limited  monarchy,  was  the  ob- 


322  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  IL 

ject  aimed  at  in  the  council  of  Constance ;  and  it  declared 
that  a  council  has  received,  by  divine  right,  a  power  in  mat- 
ters concerning  religion,  to  vi^hich  every  other,  even  the 
papal,  must  submit.  This  council,  it  is  to  be  observed,  was 
composed  not  merely  of  bishops,  like  the  ancient  ones,  but  of 
abbots,  deputies  of  universities,  ambassadors  of  princes,  theo- 
logians, and  doctors  of  law.  To  obviate  the  influence  of  the 
numerous  Italian  bishops,  the  council  was  divided  into  four 
nations,  Italian,  German,  French,  and  English,  with  equal 
rights,  and  the  majority  of  the  four  was  to  decide  each  ques- 
tion, A  committee  of  reformation  was  appointed ;  but  the 
art  of  the  Italians,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  national  jeal- 
ousies, prevented  any  thing  effectual  being  done.  Martin  V., 
when  elected,  lost  no  time  in  dissolving  the  council. 

It  was  decreed  that  another  council  should  be  held  in  five, 
a  second  in  seven  years,  and  then  one  every  ten  years.    The 

A.  D.  ^^^*  ^^^  called  at  Pavia,  but  owing  to  the  plague  was  re- 

1433.  moved  to  Siena,  and  nothing  effected  in  it.  The  second  was 
convoked  to  Basle ;  but  Martin  dying  before  it  met,  Eugenius 
IV.  attempted  to  transfer  it  to  Italy,  where  the  papal  strength 
lay.  After  several  years'  contest,  Eugenius,  by  his  preroga- 
tive, removed  it,  under  pretext  of  the  union  he  was  nego- 
tiating with  the  Greek  church,  to  Ferrara,  and  thence  to 
Florence.  But  the  assembly  at  Basle  still  sat,  and  proceeded 
in  the  work  of  reformation,  abolishing  annates,  reservations, 

439  and  other  papal  abuses.  They  proceeded  so  far  as  to  depose 
Eugenius,  and  elect  Amadous,  the  first  duke  of  Savoy,  who 
had  laid  down  his  dignity,  and  retired  into  private  life.  Few 
states  concurred  in  this  assumption  of  power ;  the  party  of 
the  fathers  of  Basle  became  weaker  every  day;  and  Nicholas 

449.  v.,  the  successor  of  Eugenius,  easily  prevailed  on  Felix  V., 
as  Amadous  was  called,  to  resign.  The  popes  ever  after 
dreaded  the  idea  of  a  general  council,  of  which  Europe  has 
since  seen  but  one,  and  that  called  greatly  against  the  incli- 
nation  of  the  pontiff  All  the  future  popes,  but  one,  were 
Italians ;  they  learned  to  confine  their  views  to  Italy,  where, 
as  a  temporal  power,  they  established  their  influence  in  their 
own  states,  and  engaged  in  the  political  projects  of  their 
neighbors. 

A  general  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  encroachments  of 
Rome,  and  of  the  church  in  general,  prevailed  throughout 
Europe,  urecursive  of  the  reformation.  England  in  this  led 
the  way :  her  kings  and  parliaments  set  barriers  to  ecclesias- 
tical  encroachments:  the  tenets  of  Wickliffhad  many  favor- 
ers ;  and  parliament  even  went  so  far  as  to  press  Henry  IV 
to  seize  the  temporalities  of  the  church.    Opinions  similar  tr 


CHAP.  VII.  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  323 

those  of  Wickliif  were  preached  in  Bohemia  by  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague ;  and  the  base  act  of  treachery  sanctioned 
by  the  fathers  at  Constance  against  the  former,  tended  to  cast 
an  additional  odium  on  the  church. 

Italy — The  Republics. 

In  the  13th  century  the  republics  of  Italy  were  numerous 
and  independent.  They  may  be  regarded  as  forming  four 
great  clusters,  according  to  their  situation.  1.  Central  Lom- 
bardy,  containing  Milan,  Cremona,  Parma,  Pavia,  Brescia, 
Bergamo,  Piacenza,  Mantua,  &-c.  2.  The  march  of  Verona, 
in  which  were  Verona,  Vicenza,  Padua,  and  Treviso.  3. 
Romagha,  where  were  Bologna,  Imola,  Modena,  Faenza, 
Ferrara,  &c.  4.  Tuscany,  containing  Florence,  Pisa,  Lucca, 
Siena,  &-c.  All  of  these  were  split  into  the  Guelf  and  Ghibilin 
factions.  In  the  first,  Milan  was  Guelf,  and  her  influence 
made  the  whole  except  Parma  and  Cremona  such :  in  the 
second,  Ezzelin  da  Romano,  a  nobleman  of  the  country,  to 
whom  Frederic  II.  had  given  his  natural  daughter  in  mar- 
riage, by  his  talents  and  his  merciless  cruelty  made  the  Ghibi- 
lin cause  triumphant :  in  the  third,  the  Guelf  party  predomi- 
nated :  in  the  fourth,  Florence  headed  the  Guelf,  Pisa  the 
Ghibilin  party.  To  these  we  are  to  add  the  great  maritime 
republics,  Genoa  on  the  west,  and  Venice  on  the  east,  and 
we  have  a  view  of  the  state  of  northern  and  central  Italy. 

Under  their  republican  forms  of  government  these  cities 
were  opulent,  industrious,  and  powerful ;  but  they  were 
harassed  by  external  and  internal  discord,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century  all  those  of  the  first  three  classes 
were  under  the  rule  of  signori,  answering  to  the  Greek 
tyrants.  In  Milan  the  Torreani  and  then  the  Visconti  ruled ; 
in  Verona  tlie  Delia  Scala ;  at  Ferrara  and  Modena  the  Este ; 
at  Padua  the  Carrara ;  at  Mantua  the  Gonzaga.  Of  these  by 
far  the  most  powerful  were  the  Visconti ;  and  though  mur- 
der, assassination,  and  every  crime  were  freely  perpetrated 
by  all,  none  equalled  them  in  atrocity. 

Florence,  like  the  other  cities,  was  divided  into  Guelfsand 
Ghibilins.  She  had  a  farther  division  of  parties,  called  the 
Neri  and  Bianchi.  There  were  here,  as  elsewhere,  powerful 
noble  families,  the  Donati,  Amidei,  Uberti,  Buondelmonti, 
whose  feuds  filled  the  city  with  confusion  and  rioL  The 
citizens  were  divided  into  arts,  or  companies  of  the  different 
trades,  each  of  which  had  its  own  council,  consul,  and  gon- 
faloniere,  to  whose  standard  all  the  members  repaired  in  any  j^.  £, 
commotion.  The  government  had  been  in  tlie  hands  of  the  126fi 
oobles;  but  in  126G  it  was  thrown  chiefly  into  tlie  hands  d 


324  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

tht  commons.     Feuds  ran  high  between  the  two  orders.     A 
A.  n.  new  order  of  plebeian  nobility  arose,  and  chiefly  administered 
1336.  the  government :  the  people  disliked  both.    An  officer,  named 
the  Captain  of  Defence,  was  appointed  with  great  criminal 
1342.  jurisdiction,  but  was  speedily  expelled  for  his  tyranny.    Soon 
after,  Walter  de  Brienne,  duke  of  Athens,  was  intrusted  wit 
unlimited  military  and  judicial  power,  with  a  view  to  hi 
curbing  the  nobility ;  but  he  aimed  at  the  tyranny,  and 
conspiracy  expelled  him. 

Though  incessantly  changing  her  form  of  government, 
Florence,  from  the  animating  influence  of  the  principle  oi 
liberty,  increased  in  wealth  and  consequence.  She  engaged 
in  wars  with  the  powers  of  Lombardy,  and  made  tlie  con- 
quest of  Prato,  Pisa,  and  other  places  in  Tuscany.  Her  wars 
were  carried  on  by  mercenary  troops,  which,  under  their 
condottieri,  answered  to  the  companies  of  adventure  in 
France. 

Pisa  was  one  of  the  first  Italian  cities  that  was  distinguish- 
ed by  naval  armaments.  In  the  11th  century  she  conquered 
Sardinia  from  the  Moors,  and  also  obtained  a  short  possession 
of  the  Baleares :  Corsica  and  Elba  also  belonged  to  her.  Her 
commerce  was,  of  course,  extensive.  She  derived  great  ad- 
vantage from  the  crusades.  In  1119,  war  broke  out  between 
Pisa  and  Genoa,  which  lasted  the  greater  part  of  two  centu- 
ries. The  sea-fight  off"  the  isle  of  Meloria,  in  1284,  gave 
the  power  of  Pisa  its  death-blow.  She  ceased  to  be  a  mari- 
time power,  gradually  declined,  and  at  length  became  subject 
to  Florence. 

Genoa  rose  into  importance  coeval  with  Pisa,  Her  pros- 
'•261.perity  increased  rapidly  on  the  recovery  of  Constantinople 
from  the  Latins,  in  which  event  she  aided.  Palseologus  as- 
signed the  Genoese  the  suburb  of  Pera,  where  their  colony 
lived  in  independence,  under  a  magistrate  sent  from  home, 
and  they  thence  carried  on  an  extensive  trade  with  the  coasts 
of  the  Black  Sea,  on  which  they  erected  factories,  and  with 
the  inland  country.  Rivalry  ensued  between  them  and  the 
Venetians:  several  hard-fought  actions  took  place,  particu- 
larly one  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  where  the  Genoese  fought 
single-handed  against  the  Venetians,  Catalans,  and  Greeks. 
I -.8.  The  most  important  was  the  war  of  Chioggia,  where  the 
Genoese,  after  defeating  the  Venetian  fleet,  entered  the  la- 
gunes  of  Venice.  Certain  of  reducing  the  city,  the  Genoese 
admiral.  Dona,  refiised  the  most  advantageous  offers  of  peace. 
The  Venetians,  gathering  courage  from  despair,  equipped  a 
fleet,  closed  up  the  passage  of  the  lagunes,   besieged  the 


lift  ,  .1! ,^iii-™i.„..,.,^.in""lli|t".Tir"il!"itm*.^ 


''%., 

'"■%■ 


'S'f 


>0^ 


CHAP.  VIL  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  327 

Genoese  in  tlie  island  of  Chioggia,  and  at  length  obliged  them 
to  surrender.    From  that  period  dates  the  decline  of  Genoa. 

Like  tlie  otlier  Italian  cities,  Genoa  waa  harassed  by  the 
feuds  of  her  nobles.  The  leading  families  on  the  Guelf  side 
were  the  Grimaldi  and  Fieschi ;  on  the  Ghibilin,  the  Doria, 
and  Spinola.  As  at  Florence,  the  nobles  were  reduced,  and 
plebeian  oligarchy,  the  Adorni,  Fregosi,  Montalti,  took  their 
place.  Yet  it  is  remarkable  that  the  Genoese  fleets  were  al- 
most always  commanded  by  one  of  the  nobles.  The  revolu 
tions  in  Genoa  were  incessan*  In  1339,  the  chief  magistrate, 
named  Doge,  was  first  &i     rfited. 

Venice  owed  her  origin  to  some  citizens  of  Aquileia,  who, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  5tli  century,  fled  to  the  islands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Brenta,  and  built  the  town  of  Rivoalto,  after- 
wards called  Venice.  This  town  gradually  increased  in  popu- 
lation and  strength.  Till  the  10th  century,  it  continued  sub- 
ject to  the  Eastern  empire.  At  this  time  Venice  made  several 
acquisitions  in  Dalmatia.  She  very  early  applied  to  commerce, 
and  she  derived  very  great  advantages  from  the  crusades.  On 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  in  which  her  fleet, 
under  Henry  Dandolo,  the  doge,  bore  a  great  share,  she  got 
three-eighths  of  tlie  city  and  of  the  provinces,  and  she  pur- 
cliased  the  shares  of  some  of  the  other  spoilers.  It  was  thus 
she  obtained  Candia  and  the  Ionian  isles.  The  trade  of  Ven- 
ice was  chiefly  carried  on  with  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  she  waa 
the  great  medium  of  conveying  the  productions  of  the  East 
into  Europe.  After  the  war  of  Chioggia,  Venice  began  to 
turn  her  thoughts  towards  territorial  acquisitions.  Before 
that  period,  the  Venetians  had  united  with  Florence  to  check 
the  career  of  Mastino  della  Scala,  lord  of  Verona,  and  had 
gained  Treviso.  They  looked  on  with  indifference  at  the 
progress  of  the  Visconti  of  Milan;  but  when,  in  the  confusion 
that  followed  the  death  of  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  Francesco 
Carrara,  lord  of  Padua,  had  seized  Verona,  the  Venetians, 
who  hated  thnt  family,  took  arms,  and  reduced  both  Padua 
and  Verona,  and  the  duke  of  Milan  ceded  Vicenza  to  them. 
Venice  afterwards,  in  alliance  with  Florence,  against  Filippo 
Maria  Visconti,  took  into  her  service  Carmagnola,  the  cele- 
brated condoltiere,  and  she  acquired  Brescia  and  Bergamo, 
and  reached  the  Adda,  which  she  never  passed.  4,  p 

The  government  of  Venice,  at  first,  perhaps,  merely  fede-  697 
rative,  had  become,  under  its  Doge,  or  duke,  nearly  ein  elec- 
tive absolute  monarchy.     Limitations  were  gradually  laid  on 
his  power,  which  ended  in  making  the  doge  little  more  than 

pageant,  and  converting  the  government  into  a  jealous  close 


}28  msTOBT  or  tub  world.  part  ii 

ariBtocracy,  which,  with  its  various  councils  and  intricate 
mode  of  election,  has  lasted  down  to  near  the  present  time. 

Italy — Naples  and  Sicily. 

1254.  On  the  death  of  Conrad,  son  of  Frederic  II.,  his  natura 
brother  Manfred  occupied  the  kingdom  in  the  name  of  Con- 
radin,  the  young  heir.  The  Ghibilin  party  looked  up  to  Man- 
fred as  their  head :  the  pope  hated  him  as  the  son  of  Frederic 
The  pope,  as  superior  lord,  offered  the  kingdom  which  Man 
fred  had  usurped  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis, 
who,  with  his  brother's  consent,  led  thither  a  crusade,  as  it 
266.  was  called.  Manfred  fell  in  the  field.  Conradin,  afterwards 
attempting  to  recover  his  inheritance,  was  taken  prisoner, 

1268.  and  judicially  murdered  by  Charles.  But  Constance,  daughter 
of  Manfred,  was  married  to  Peter  III.  of  Aragon,  who,  in  her 
right,  claimed  the  crown. 

Charles  was  master  of  Provence,  Naples,  Sicily,  head  of 
the  Guelf  party  in  Italy,  and  created  by  the  pope  vicar-gene- 
ral in  Tuscany.  John  of  Procida,  one  of  the  adherents  of 
Manfred,  was  living  in  Valencia,  watching  an  opportunity  of 
revenge.  The  Neapolitan  barons  were  French,  or  in  that 
interest;  but  Sicily  was  treated  as  a  conquered  country,  the 
women,  after  the  usual  manner  of  the  French,  insulted,  and 
the  indignation  of  the  people  thereby  excited,  which  was  in 
creased  by  the  speeches  of  John,  who  went  in  disguise 
through  the  island.  Pope  Nicholas  III.,  adverse  to  the  An 
gevin  dynasty,  the  court  of  Constantinople,  the  king  of  Ara 
gon,  all  entered  into  the  project  of  John  of  Procida,  and  when 

1253.  the  massacre  of  the  French,  called  the  Sicilian  vespers,  an 
utterly  unpremeditated  act,  occurred,  the  fleet  of  the  king  of 
Aragon  was  at  hand,  and  the  Sicilians  gave  him  the  crown. 
A  war  ensued,  in  which  the  king  of  Naples  was  supported 
by  the  kings  of  France  and  Castile,  and  by  the  pope.  Peter 
dying,  left  Sicily  to  his  second  son,  James ;  and  Alfonso,  king 
of  Aragon,  made  peace,  engaging  not  to  assist  Sicily.  James, 
on  succeeding  to  his  brother  in  Aragon,  renounced  Sicily ; 
but  the  Sicilians  transferred  the  crown  to  his  brother  Frede- 
ric, and  maintained  the  war  against  Charles  II.  of  Naples, 
and  the  king  of  Aragon ;  and  peace  was  at  length  concluded, 

;  300  on  condition  that  Frederic  should  retain  for  life  the  kingdom, 

which  then  should  revert  to  the  crown  of  Naples. 
305  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  the  crown  was  disputed  be- 
tween Caribert,  the  son  of  his  eldest  son  Charles,  who  had 
died  king  of  Hungary,  and  Robert,  his  eldest  living  son.  The 
point  was  referred  to  the  pope,  the  feudal  lord  of  the  king- 
dom, who  gave  sentence  in  favor  of  Robert  The  latter  leav- 


CHAP.  VII.  DECLINE  OF  rilB  PAPAL  P0VV£:R.  329 

mg  no  male  issue,  the  crown  descended  to  his  grand-daughter 
Joanna.  She  was  espoused  to  her  cousin  Andrew,  son  of  Cari- 
bert,  king  of  Hungary ;  but  the  manners  of  this  prince  were  a.  d 
brutal,  and  he  was  assassinated,  an  act  of  which  the  guilt  1343 
was  laid  on  the  queen.  Louis  king  of  Hungary  invaded  Na- 
ples, to  avenge  the  death  of  his  brother.  Joanna  fled,  but 
afterwards  regained  her  crown.  The  queen  had  no  children. 
The  king  of  Hungary,  and  Charles  duke  of  Durazzo,  were 
tne  ouiy  male  descendants  of  Charles  I.  The  latter  was  mar- 
ried to  the  queen's  niece,  and  was  regarded  by  her  as  heir 
to  the  crown.  Offended  with  the  queen,  Charles  invaded  her 
kingdom,  took  her  prisoner,  and  had  her  smothered  in  prison.  i37S 

But  Joanna  had  adopted  Louis  of  Anjou,  uncle  to  Charles 
VL  of  France.  He  easily  entered  on  Provence,  and  led 
30,000  men  to  Naples,  but  he  effected  nothing.  Charles  IIL, 
now,  as  he  thought,  secure,  accepted  the  crown  of  Hungary. 
His  son  Ladislaus,  only  ten  years  of  age,  succeeded  him  in 
Naples.  The  party  that  had  called  in  Louis  then  invited  his 
son  Louis  II.,  and  put  him  in  possession  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  kingdom.  But  as  Ladislaus  grew  up,  he  displayed  su- 
perior qualities ;  the  Angevin  barons  came  over  to  him,  and 
he  recovered  the  whole  of  the  kingdom.  On  the  death  of 
this  able  prince,  his  elder  sister,  Joanna  II.,  a  weak,  vicious 
woman,  came  to  the  throne.  The  kingdom  fell  into  anarchy, 
Sforza  Attendolo,  the  great  constable,  and  Ser  Gianni  Carac- 
cioli,  the  seneschal,  were  the  most  powerful  individuals. 
Sforza  called  in  a  pretender  to  the  crown,  Louis  III.  of  An- 
jou. Caraccioli  persuaded  the  queen  to  adopt  Alfonso,  king 
of  Aragon  and  Sicily. 

The  successors  of  Frederic  I.  of  Sicily,  were  weak  or  in- 
fant princes.    Maria  queen  of  Sicily  Jiad  married  Martin,  son 
of  the  king  of  Aragon,  to  whom,  when  dying,  she  left  her  1409 
crown ;  and  on  his  death  his  father  Martin,  king  of  Aragon, 
had  taken  possession  of  Sicily  as  heir  to  his  son. 

Alfonso  gladly  embraced  the  offer  of  Joanna ;  but  jealousy 
of  him,  or  some  other  cause,  induced  her  to  revoke  her  deed, 
and  adopt  Louis ;  and  the  queen's  and  the  Angevin  parties 
united  were  too  strong  for  Alfonso.  Louis  dying  before  the 
queen,  she  substituted  his  brother  Regnier.  When  Joanna 
died,  Regnier  was  a  prisoner  in  Burgundy;  but  his  wife 
maintained  his  cause  with  spirit.  Fortune,  however,  sided 
with  Alfonso,  and  he  founded  the  Aragonite  line  at  Naplea. 
Alfonso,  having  no  lawful  issue,  was  anxious  to  transmit  Na- 
les  to  his  illegitimate  son  Ferdinand.  Chiefly  with  tiiis 
view  he  became  a  party  with  Sforza  duke  of  Milan,  and  the 
republics  of  Venice  and  Florence,  in  tlie  quadruple  league,  14M 
28* 


330  HISTORY  OP  TUB  WORLD.  PART  II 

for  the  maintenance  of  peace  in  Italy ;  and  the  pope  and  tlie 

Neapolitan  parliament  confirmed  the  succession  of  Ferdinand. 

A,  D.  But  the  character  of  this  prince  was  dark  and  vindictive,  and 

1461.  the  harons  offered  the  crown  to  John,  son  of  Regnier  of  An- 

jou,  who  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  obtain  it. 

Germany. 

i73.  After  Germany  had  been  three-and-twenty  years  without  a 
head,  the  electors  fixed  on  Rodolf  of  Habsburg,  a  prince  of 
ancient  family  and  of  considerable  possessions  in  Switzerland 
and  along  the  Upper  Rhine.  Rodolf  was  an  able,  sensible 
monarch,  and  he  turned  all  his  efforts  to  the  establishing  of 
peace  and  tranquillity  within  the  empire.  He  naturally 
sought  to  aggrandize  his  family.  The  rebellion  of  Ottocar, 
king  of  Bohemia,  gave  him  the  disposal  of  Austria,  Syria 

1283.  and  Carniola,  which,  with  the  consent  of  tlie  diet,  he  bestowed 
on  his  son  Albert,  and  Carinthia  on  Meinhard  landgraf  of 
Tyrol,  whose  daughter  Albert  married.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  possessions  of  tlie  house  of  Austria. 

The  electors  refused  to  choose  Albert  king  of  the  Romans 

1291.  in  his  father's  lifetime ;  and  on  the  death  of  Rodolf  they 
gave  the  imperial  dignity  to  Adolf  of  Nassau.  Albert,  how- 
ever, raised  a  strong  party  against  him,  and   got  himself 

1298.  elected.  Adolf  fought  for  his  dignity,  but  fell,  as  was  said, 
by  the  hand  of  Albert.  Albert  was  active,  ambitious,  un- 
quiet, but  unsuccessful  in  his  projects,  and  hated  by  his  neigh- 

1308.  bors  and.  subjects.  He  was  murdered  by  his  nephew  John, 
from  whom  he  witliheld  his  inheritance.  Some  of  the  princes 
are  said  to  have  been  consenting  to  the  deed. 

1309.  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  was  elected.  His  reign  is 
chiefly  distinguished  by  his  attempts  to  establish  the  imperial 
authority  in  Italy.  In  this  he  met  some  partial  success,  but 
died  suddenly  in  the  midst  of  his  projects. 

1314  Louis  of  Bavaria  was  chosen  by  one  part  of  the  electors, 
Frederic  of  Austria  by  another.     The  battle  of  Miihldorf 

1322.  finally  decided  in  favor  of  Louis.  This  emperor  also  crossed 
the  Alps  to  contend  against  the  pope  and  Robert  king  of  Na- 
ples ;  but  he  derived  little  credit  from  his  expedition :  his 
whole  reign  was  occupied  in  the  contest  with  the  holy  see. 

1347.  Charles  IV.,  son  of  John  king  of  Bohemia,  next  purchased 
the  empire.    This  monarch  loved  pomp  and  parade,  and  lived 

355.  in  great  splendor.  He  annexed  Brandenburg  and  Silesia  to 
Bohemia.  By  his  Golden  Bull  he  ascertained  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  electoral  college.  He  procured  his  son  Wence* 
laus  to  be  appointed  his  successor. 

Wenceslaus  was  addicted  to  pleasure.    His  Bohemian  no- 


Jewish  Foiitbess  of  Tchoufut  K&ls. 


The  Temple  at  Paris— Residence  of  the  Knit;hts  Templars. 


CHAP.  VII.  DECLINE  OP  TUB  PAPAL  POWER.  233 

bleg,  thinking  he  favored  the  people  too  much,  confined  him,  a-  d. 
under  the  pretext  of  his  violence  and  immorality,  and  gave  1394 
him  in  custody  to  the  duke  of  Austria.     He  escaped.     The  1400 
spiritual  electors  and  the  palatine  deposed  him,  and  he  gave 
a  willing  assent  to  this  act,  satisfied  with  his  paternal  king- 
dom of  Bohemia. 

Frederic  duke  of  Brunswick  was  chosen  in  his  stead,  but 
was  murdered  immediately  afterwards  by  his  private  enemies. 
Rupert,  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  was  then  chosen.  On  his 
death,  the  choice  fell  on  Jobst  of  Luxemburg,  margraf  of  Mo-  1410 
ravia.  He,  too,  died  within  a  short  time,  and  all  the  voices 
declared  for  Sigismund,  brother  of  Wenceslaus,  and  king  of 
Hungary. 

Few  princes  have  united  more  crowns  than  Sigismund. 
By  his  first  wife,  Mary  of  Anjou,  he  got  Hungary,  Dalmatia, 
Bosnia :  his  brother  left  him  Bohemia ;  the  pope  gave  him  the 
imperial  crown,  and  to  these  he  joined  Moravia,  Lusatia, 
Brandenburg,  and  Silesia,  The  chief  stain  on  the  memory  of 
Sigismund  is  his  violation  of  the  safe-conduct  ^iven  to  Huss 
when  going  to  Constance.  This  involved  him  m  an  eighteen  1414. 
years'  war  against  Zisca,  Procopius,  and  the  other  Hussite 
leaders.  Sigismund  had  been  engaged  in  war  with  the  Otto- 
mans, and  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  by  them  at  Nice-  139&. 
polis.  His  poverty  obliged  him  to  sell  several  of  the  imperial 
rights  and  claims. 

The  imperial  dignity  now  passed  to  the  house  of  Austria, 
there  to  continue.     Albert  duke  of  Austria  had  married  the 
heiress  of  Sigismund.     But  the  Hungarians  made  it  a  condi- 
tion at  his  coronation  that  he  would  not  accept  the  imperial 
crown.   The  Bohemians  also  made  conditions  with  him.   The  1437 
electors  vainly  tried  to  induce  the  margraf  of  Brandenburg  to 
accept  the  crown.  At  length  the  Hungarians  gave  their  con- 
sent, and  Albert  was  elected  emperor ;  but  just  as  he  was  en-  1438 
gaging  in  active  hostilities  with  the  Turks,  he  was  surprised  1439 
by  death. 

Ladislaus,  the  posthumous  son  of  Albert,  succeeded  his  1440 
father  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Albert's  uocond  cousin, 
Frederic  duke  of  Styria^  was  chosen  emperor.  His  long  reign 
of  fifty-three  years  occupied  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  was  an  insignificant  prince,  yet  he  had 
influence  enough  to  have  his  son  Maximilian  elected  king  of 
the  Romans  during  his  life ;  and  his  posteritjr  still  possess  the 
dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  all  of  which  were  reunited  1493 
in  his  time,  or  in  that  of  his  son. 


334  HISTOBT  0?  THB  WOBLD.  PABT  H 

Switzerland. 

Switzerland  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  or  Bur- 
A.  D.  gundy,  and,  with  the  rest  of  the  dominions  of  Rodolf,  was 

1032,  united  to  the  German  empire.  It  contained  a  numerous  and 
powerful  nobility,  and  several  rich  ecclesiastical  lords.  Its 
towns  of  Zuric,  Basle,  Berne,  and  Friburg  rose  into  import- 
ance. Among  the  nobles,  the  counts  of  Habsburg  gradually 
became  the  most  powerful :  they  were  advocates  to  several 
convents,  some  of  which  had  estates  in  the  forest-cantons  of 
Schwytz  and  Underwald.  The  people  of  these  cantons  re- 
posed confidence  in  Rodolf,  the  first  emperor  of  the  house  of 
Habsburg :  they  distrusted  his  son  Albert,  who  justified  their 
suspicions ;  for,  not  satisfied  with  the  rights  which,  as  advo- 
cate to  the  convents,  he  possessed  over  a  part  of  the  forest- 
cantons,  he,  when  elected  emperor,  sent  imperial  bailiffs  to 
administer  justice  in  the  whole  of  these  cantons.  The  people 
were  indignant  at  this  attempt  to  reduce  them  to  servitude. 
Three  men,  Stauffacher  of  Schwytz,  Furst  of  Uri,  Melchthal 
of  Underwald,  each  with  ten  companions,  met  by  night  in  a 
secret  valley,  and  swore  to  assert  the  liberty  of  their  country. 

<308.  The  three  cantons  rose  in  arms,  and  expelled  the  imperial 
officers.  Albert  was  shortly  afterwards  assassinated  by  his 
nephew.  Henry  VII.,  the  next  emperor,  was  little  inclined 
to  strengthen  the  house  of  Austria ;  but  Leopold,  the  son  of 
Albert,  led  a  considerable  force  into  the  mountains,  and  waa 
utterly  defeated  by  those  brave  peasants  at  Morgarten,  the 

1315.  Marathon  of  Switzerland. 

Lucerne  now  joined  the  confederacy  :  before  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century  it  was  augmented  by  the  accession  of 
Zurich,  Berne,  Zug,  and  Glaris.  These  eight  were  called 
the  ancient  cantons.  Friburg,  Soleure,  Basle,  SchaffTiausen, 
and  Appenzel  afterwards  became  parts  of  the  body.  The 
same  conflict  as  -v^tas  carried  on  in  Lombardy  between  the 
cities  and  the  rural  nobility  prevailed  here,  and  with  the 
same  results.  The  house  of  Austria  sold  the  greater  part  of 
its  possessions  to  Zurich  and  Berne.  The  abbot  of  St.  Gall, 
and  the  remaining  lay  and  spiritual  lords,  entered  into  leagues 
with  different  cantons.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  Switzerland  was  acknowledged  as  a  free  indepen 
dent  country.  Their  defeats  of  Louis  XI.  and  the  duke  of 
Burgundy  placed  the  Swiss  as  soldiers  in  the  very  first  rank. 

France. 

270.      On  the  death  of  St  Louis,  his  son  Philip  III.,  the  Bold, 
who  had  accompanied  him,  made  peace  with  Tunis,  and  re- 


CHAP.  VIL  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  335 

turned  to  Frcnce.  Philip  engaged  in  a  war  with  Aragon,  a.  d 
in  defence  of  his  uncle,  Charles  of  Anjou's  claim  to  Sicily ;  in  1270 
which  war  he  did  not  meet  with  much  success.  On  the 
death  of  his  uncle  Alfonso,  who  had  been  invested  with  the 
county  of  Poitou,  and  part  of  Auvergne  and  Saintonge,  and 
who  also  held  in  right  of  his  wife,  heiress  of  Raymond  VII. 
of  Toulouse,  the  remains  of  that  fief,  Philip  reunited  the 
whole  to  the  crown  of  France. 

Philip  IV.,  Jie  Fair,  a  rapacious  and  ambitious  prince,  at-  1885 
tempted  to  reunite,  by  force,  some  of  the  remaining  great 
fiefs.  He  outwitted  Edward  I.  of  England,  and  got  possession 
of  Guienne,  which  he  held  for  some  time.  He  acted  with 
similar  injustice  in  the  case  of  Flanders ;  but  the  total  defeat 
of  his  army  at  Courtray  by  the  Flemings  gave  a  check  to  his  1302 
injustice  in  that  quarter.  On  a  sentence  of  forfeiture  passed 
against  the  count,  Philip  took  possession  of  Angouleme  and 
La  Marche ;  he  also  acquired  tlie  city  of  Lyons  and  its  terri- 
tory, which  had  been  given  by  Louis  IV.  with  his  daughter 
Matilda  to  the  king  of  Burgundy,  and  had  gone  with  that  king- 
dom to  the  empire  in  1032.  Frederic  Barbarossa,  having  given 
all  the  royal  rights  over  the  city  to  the  archbishop,  St.  Louis 
was  called  in  as  a  mediator  between  the  chapter  and  the  city, 
as  also  was  Philip  III.,  who  forced  the  new  archbishop  to  take 
an  oath  of  fealty  to  himself  At  length  a  spirited  archbishop 
resisted  this  usurpation,  and  Philip  IV.  laid  siege  to  the  city,  1310 
which  submitted,  and  was  united  to  the  crown. 

Philip  the  Fair  was  the  first  king  who  convoked  the  states-  1302 
general,  or  the  representatives  of  the  three  estates  of  the 
kingdom.     They  were  first  convened  to  give  weight  to  the 
king's  cause  in  his  dispute  with  Boniface  VIII. ;  afterwards  1314. 
for  the  imposition  of  taxes.     The  reign  of  Philip  was  dis- 
graced by  the  suppression  of  the  order  of  I^ights  Templars,  1311. 
and  the  barbarous  tortures  inflicted  on  its  most  distinguished 
members.     Philip  had  three  sons,  Louis  Hutin,  Philip  the 
Long,  and  Charles  the  Fair,  all  of  whom  reigned  in  France; 
and  one  daughter  Isabella,  married  to  Edward  II.  of  England. 

Louis  X.,  Hutin,  survived  his  father  but  a  year.  He  left  1314 
one  daughter,  Jane,  and  his  queen  pregnant.  Louis  had  pos- 
sessed, by  his  mother,  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  and  the  coun- 
ties of  Champagne  and  Brie.  His  brother  Philip  assumed  the 
regency  of  both  France  and  Navarre,  and  then  made  a  treaty 
with  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  uncle  of  Jane,  by  which  it  was 
agreed,  that  if  the  queen  should  have  a  daughter,  the  two 
princesses,  or  the  survivor,  should  take  the  inheritance  of 
their  grandmother,  and  renounce  all  right  to  the  crown  of 
France.    But  this  was  not  to  take  place  till  they  had  attained 


836  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

the  age  of  consent,  when,  if  they  should  refuse,  their  claim 
was  to  remain,  and  right  to  be  done  them.  Philip  was  mean- 
time, as  governor,  to  receive  the  homage  of  the  vassals,  and 
govern  all  these  realms.  In  case  of  the  birth  of  a  male  heir, 
the  treaty  was  not  to  take  eifect.  The  queen  brought  forth 
a  son,  who  died  within  four  days.  The  treaty  was  now  evi- 
dently become  absolute,  and  Philip  should  have  governed,  aa 
regent  or  governor,  till  Jane  came  of  age  to  accept  or  reflise 

A  D.  the  contract  made  by  her  uncle.     But,  instead  of  so  doing 

1317.  Philip  went  to  Rheims,  and  had  himself  crowned,  though  o| 
posed  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  by  his  own  brother 
Charles.  He  thence  went  to  Paris  and  convened  an  assembly 
of  prelates,  barons,  and  burgesses  of  that  city,  who  declared 
him  their  lawful  sovereign.  The  duke  of  Burgundy  defend- 
ed the  rights  of  his  niece,  till,  on  the  prospect  of  a  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Philip,  he  gave  up,  in  her  name,  not 
only  her  claim  to  France,  but  her  right  to  Navarre  and 
Champagne.  This  is  the  first  occasion  on  which  the  right 
of  females  to  the  crown  of  France  was  ever  discussed. 

1322.  Philip  died,  leaving  three  daughters,  and  his  brother 
Charles  mounted  the  throne.  Charles,  on  his  death,  left  hia 
queen  pregnant.  Philip  of  Valois,  grandson  of  Philip  the 
Bold,  took  the  regency,  and  on  the  queen  bringing  forth  a 

1328.  daughter,  he  was  crowned  king.  So  that  the  principle  of  the 
exclusion  of  females  was  now  fully  established.  No  com- 
petitor appeared  in  France  ;  but  Edward  III.  of  England  put 
in  a  claim  in  right  of  his  mother,  Isabella,  sister  to  the  last 
three  kings.  In  every  point  of  view  this  claim  was  unjust. 
If  the  Salic  law  was  not  valid,  the  claims  of  the  daughters 
of  the  last  three  monarchs  were  superior  to  his ;  if  it  was 
valid,  all  female  claims  were  alike  extinguished.  But  Ed- 
ward maintained  that  though  a  female  could  not  inherit  her- 
self, she  could  transmit  a  title  to  her  male  issue ;  yet  here 
again  he  was  foiled ;  for,  admitting  this  distinction,  which  is 
contrary  to  all  rule,  Jane,  daughter  of  Louis  Hutin,  was  mar- 
ried and  had  a  son  who  was  nearer  to  the  crown  than  Ed- 
ward. The  English  monarch,  however,  thought  himself 
strong  enough  to  make  his  claim  good  by  force  of  arms,  and 
he  commenced  that  series  of  wars  between  France  and  Eng- 
land which  lasted  during  a  space  of  120  years,  and  cost  so 
much  blood  and  treasure  to  both.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  the 
crown  acquired  Dauphine,  left  to  it  by  the  will  of  the  last  of 
its  princes,  on  condition  of  the  king's  eldest  son  being  styled 
Dauphin. 

.350.  After  the  taking  of  Calais  by  Edward  a  truce  was  con- 
cluded, during  which  Philip  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  hii 


CHARLES  VIII.  HEARING  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  RICH  AND  POOR. 


CHAP.  VII.  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  33§ 

son  John,  a  prince  in  every  way  deserving'  of  a  better  fortune 
than  he  experienced.     During  the  captivity  of  Joh»,  after 
the   unfortunate  battle  of  Poitiers,  France  was  in  a  most 
wretched  state :  the  peasantry,  driven  to  madness  by  the  op- 
pression and  insolence  of  tlieir  lords,  broke  out  into  the  cele-  j^_  d. 
brated  insurrection  called  the  Jacquerie,  and  every  horrid  1358 
enormity  was  perpetrated  by  them.     Charles,  son  of  Johii, 
the  regent  of  France,  now  agreed  to  the  peace  of  Bretigni, 
and  John  was  liberated.     On  some  difficulty  arising  with 
respect  to  some  of  the  articles,  this  honorable  prince  returned 
to  England  to  adjust  them.  He  died  while  there  at  the  Savoy  13G4 
palace. 

Charles  V.,  the  Wise,  turned  all  his  thoughts  to  restoring 
France  to  her  former  state  of  power  and  independence.  He 
broke  the  peace  of  Bretigni,  and  stripped  the  English  of 
nearly  all  their  possessions  in  that  country.  This  able,  judi- 
cious, and  excellent  monarch  was,  unfortunately  for  France,  1380 
carried  off  by  death,  leaving  one  son,  a  boy  of  tliirteen  years, 
under  the  care  of  tliree  ambitious  uncles,  the  dukes  of  Anjou, 
Berri,  and  Burgundy. 

During  the  minority  of  Charles  VI.  the  nation  was  dread- 
fully harassed  by  excessive  taxes,  which  were  wantonly  ex- 
pended.    Seditions  broke  out  in  Paris  and  elsewhere,  which 
were  severely  punished.     When  Charles  assumed  the  reins  1389 
of  government,  his  new  ministers  proved  equally  oppressive. 
A  few  years  afterwards  the  intellect  of  the  king  became  de-  1393 
ranged,  and  was  never  fully  restored.    The  princes  returned 
to  power.     Burgundy  was  at  the  head  of  affairs,  but  was  op- 
posed by  the  duke  of  Orleans  the  king's  brother.     The  duke  1404 
of  Burgundy  dying,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  named  John 
Sans  P'eur :  he  and  the  duke  of  Orleans  were  reconciled ; 
but  soon  after  the  latter  was  assassinated  in  the  streets  of  1407 
Paris,  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  avowed  the  deed.  The  queen 
and  all  the  princes  of  the  blood  united  against  the  assassin ; 
yet  such  was  his  power,  that  after  making  a  slight  apology 
to  the  king,  he  was  pardoned,  and  obtained  the  management 
of  affairs.     The  princes  took  arms  under  the  father-in-law  of 
the  young  duke  of  Orleans,  the  count  of  Armagnac,  from 
whom  their  party  was  named.     The  dauphin  played  the  two 
factions  against  each  other ;  but  he  and  his  next  brother  dying, 
the  rank  fell  to  Charles,  the  king's  youngest  son.  Armagnac, 
now  constable  of  France,  was  at  the  head  of  affairs.     His  I4n 
severity  revived  the  Burgundian  party  in  Paris;  he  made  the 
queen,  the  infamous  Isabel  of  Bavaria,  his  enemy,  by  detect- 
ing her  gallantries.   She  joined  Iicr  old  foe,  the  duke  of  Bu»^ 


340  mSTORY  OF  THB  WORLD.  PART  n. 

gundy.     A  horrid   insurrection   was  excited  in  Paris,   and 

14ig'  Armagnac  and  all  his  party,  to  the  number  of  three  or  four 
thousand,  were  massacred  in  one  day.  A  reconciliation  now 
took  place  between  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  dauphin  ; 
but,  at  their  interview,  the  duke  was  murdered  by  some  of 
the  attendants  of  the  latter. 

Henry  V.  had  renewed  the  war  with  France,  had  won  the 
battle  of  Azincourt,  and  conquered  Normandy.  Filled  with 
rage  against  the  supposed  author  of  the  murder,  the  whole 
of  the  Burgundian  party,  with  Pliilip,  son  of  the  late  duke,  at 
their  head,  and  joined  by  the  queen,  agreed  to  the  treaty  of 

1420.  Troyes  with  Henry,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  on  his 
marriage  with  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  he  should 
become  regent,  and  succeed  to  the  kingdom  on  the  death  of 
his  father-in-law,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  dauphin  and  all  the 
princes  of  the  blood.  Henry,  during  two  years,  governed  the 
north  of  France,  and  his  infant  son,  Henry  VT.,  was,  on  the 

1422.  death  of  Charles,  proclaimed  king  of  France  and  England. 

Charles  VII.  was  acknowledged  only  in  the  central  prov- 
inces and  in  Languedoc,  Poitou,  and  Dauphin^.  The  duke 
of  Bedford  governed  with  vigor  for  young  Henry,  and  the  war 
was  carried  on  to  the  advantage  of  the  English.  Charles, 
though  brave  and  talented,  was  sunk  in  despair  and  pleasure. 
At  length,  the  heroic  Maid  of  Orleans  appeared ;  the  afiairs 
of  Charles  took  a  new  turn ;  Burgundy  returned  to  his  duty, 

1449  and  the  English  were  expelled  from  France.  Master  of  his 
kingdom,  Charles  turned  all  his  thoughts  to  restoring  and 
extending  the  royal  authority.  He  suppressed  some  risings 
of  the  nobles,  and  he  formed  his  celebrated  companies  of  or- 
dinance, a  body  of  about  9000  cavalry,  the  first  standing  army 
maintained  in  Europe. 

j4gl,  Louis  XL,  the  Tiberius  of  France,  showed  the  power  es- 
tablished by  his  father  to  be  a  despotism.     The  nobility  saw 

1464.  ^he  approaching  ruin  of  'sjfeeir  independence.  A  confederacy, 
named  The  League  of  the  Public  Weal,  was  formed  against 
the  crown,  in  which  all  the  princes  and  great  vassals  shared, 
headed  by  the  king's  brother,  Charles  duke  of  Berri.  By  the 
peace  of  Conflans  Louis  was  compelled  to  give  Charles  the 
duchy  of  Normandy  as  an  appanage  ;*  but  he  soon  deprived 

•442  him  of  it,  and  at  last  gave  him  Guienne,  where  he  died. 
Having  diverted  by  money  the  invasion  of  Edward  IV.  of 
England,  Louis  turned  all  his  thoughts  to  oppose  the  duke  of 
Burgundy. 

*  An  appanage  was  a  provision  made  for  a  younger  son  of  a  king  ot 
FtanM.    It  generally  consisted  of  an  extensive  fief  beld  of  Um  crown. 


CHAP.  VH.        DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  341 

John  h-"!  given  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  as  an  appanage  to 
his  tliird  eon  Philip,  and  by  marriage  with  the  heiress  of 
the  count  of  Manders  he  had  gotten  that  province,  Artois, 
Franche-Comtc,  and  the  Nivernois.  Philip  tlie  Good,  his  grand- 
son, had  acquired  all  the  other  provinces  that  compose  the 
Netherlands.    Charles  the  Bold,  the  present  duke,  was  proud 
and  ambitious :  he  engaged  in  war  with  Lorraine  with  suc- 
cess ;  but  being  offended  with  the  Swiss,  he  attacked  them,  a.  d 
and  was  defeated  at  Granson,  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  and  again  1476 
at  Morat,  near  Friburg,  with  prodigious  loss.  This  day  broke 
the  power  of  Burgundy :  Charles,  with  inferior  forces,  gave 
at  Nancy  battle  to  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  perished  in  the  1477 
fight. 

Charles  left  an  only  child,  a  daughter,  named  Mary.  The 
true  policy  of  Louis  was  evidently  to  obtain  her  in  marriage 
for  the  dauphin ;  but  he  preferred  setting  up  a  claim  to  the 
duchy,  as  having  been  an  appanage,  and  therefore  incapable 
of  descent  to  females ;  and  he  seized  on  Artois  and  Franche- 
Comte.  This  and  other  acts  of  perfidy  incensed  Mary, 
and  she  married  Maximilian,  son  of  the  emperor  of  Germany. 
Mary  did  not  long  survive:  she  left  a  son,  Philip,  and  a  daugh-  1477 
ter,  Margaret.  At  the  peace  of  Arras,  the  latter  was  con- 
tracted to  the  dauphin,  and  Franche-Comte  and  Artois  were  1482 
to  be  her  dower.  In  this  reign  Provence  was  united  to  the 
French  crown,  by  the  will  of  Charles  of  Anjou. 

Charles  VIII.  was  but  thirteen  years  of  age  on  the  death  1483 
of  his  father.  Louis  had  appointed  his  daughter  Arme,  mar- 
ried to  the  lord  of  Beaujeu,  to  be  regent  This  was  contested 
with  her  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  afterwards  Louis  XII. ;  but 
the  lady  of  Beaujeu  stood  her  ground,  and  ruled  France,  in 
spite  of  the  Orleans  party  and  their  ally  the  duke  of  Britany. 

This  last  duke,  like  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  died  leaving  an 
only  daughter.  Her  hand  was  sought  by  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
whom  she  preferred  herself,  by  the  lord  of  Albret,  of  the 
family  of  Foix,  and  by  Maximilian  kin^  of  the  Romans,  now 
a  widower.  The  French  regent  carried  on  a  vigorous  war 
against  Britany.  The  duchess  Anne,  having  no  other  means 
of  escaping  Albret,  was  married  by  proxy  to  Maximilian;  but  148C 
was  ultimately  compelled  to  espouse  Charles  VIII.,  who  waa 
already  betrothed  to  the  daughter  of  Maximilian.  This  last 
was  enraged  at  the  slight  put  on  himself  and  his  daughter, 
but  was  appeased  by  Charles  restoring  Artois  and  FVanche- 
Comte. 

Thus  waa  France,  at  length,  consolidated  into  one  great 
monarchy :  the  feudal  system  was  at  an  end ;  no  internal  dis- 
29* 


342  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

turbances  were  to  be  found,  and  she  could  now  enter  with 
dignity  on  the  large  theatre  of  Europe. 

England — The  Plantagenets. 

1274.  Edward  I.,  from  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  directed 
his  attention  to  the  correction  of  abuses  and  the  exact  admin 
istration  of  the  laws.  While  thus  engaged,  an  opportunity 
offered  of  interfering  in  Wales,  and  he  reduced  that  country 

282.  under  the  crown  of  England,  from  which  it  has  never  since 
been  separated.  A  dispute  arising  about  the  right  to  the  suc- 
cession to  the  Scottish  crown,  that  nation  referred  the  ques- 
tion to  Edward.  The  English  king  appeared  with  a  large 
army  on  the  frontiers,  advanced  a  claim  of  feudal  superiority 
over  that  kingdom,  to  which  the  Scots  were  forced  to  submit, 
and  he  then  gave  the  crown  to  the  candidate  whose  claim 

1296.  appeared  best  founded.  The  Scots  soon  after  took  arms  foi 
their  independence.  Edward  entered  and  conquered  the 
whole  country  ;  but  still  the  spirit  of  the  nation  rose,  and  Ed- 
ward died  on  an  expedition  against  that  kingdom.  It  is 
gratifying  to  see  vice  punish  itself:  by  his  eagerness  in  this 
flagrantly  unjust  attempt  on  Scotland,  Edward  nearly  lost 
Guienne  to  the  French  king ;  the  parliament,  of  which  the 
commons  were  now  become  an  essential  part,  acquired  vigor, 

1299.  and  the  king  was  forced  to  give  the  Confirmation  of  the  Char- 
ters by  which  the  charters  of  Liberties  and  of  the  Forests 
were  confirmed,  and  to  bind  himself  to  levy  no  contributions 
without  the  consent  of  the  people.  Edward  was  a  monarch 
of  great  talent  and  capacity. 

-307  Edward  II.  was  the  very  opposite  of  his  father ;  he  aban- 
doned himself  entirely  to  the  direction  of  his  favorites,  at  first 
of  Piers  Gavestone,  and,  after  his  death,  of  Hugh  Spencer. 
In  his  wars  with  Scotland  he  reaped  nothing  but  disgrace. 
His  army  was  utterly  defeated  by  the  Scots  at  Bannockburn. 
Edward  was  married  to  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  king  of 
France.  She  and  the  nobles  conspired  and  deposed  the  king, 
and  he  was  barbarously  murdered  by  his  keepers  at  Berkeley 
castle.  A  mild,  inoffensive  prince,  he  was  unfit  for  those  tur- 
bulent times. 

327  Edward  HI.  was  but  fourteen  years  old  when  his  father 
was  deposed,  and  the  queen  was  declared  regent  during  hia 
minority.  She  and  her  paramour  Mortimer  governed  with 
such  tyranny,  that  Edward  was  enabled  to  seize  the  reins  of 
government,  and  to  have  Mortimer  executed  for  his  crimes. 
Unjust  and  expensive  wars  with  France  and  Scotland,  in 
which,  no  doubt,  brilliant  victories  were  gained,  occupied 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  reign.     Owing  to  the  king's  conse- 


CHAP.  VII.         DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  343 

qucnt  great  demand  for  supplies,  parliament  increased  in 
power  and  influence,  and  three  great  principles  were  estab- 
lished ;  to  wit,  the  illegality  of  raising  money  without  con- 
sent ;  the  necessity  of  the  concurrence  of  the  two  houses  for 
any  alteration  of  the  laws ;  and  the  right  of  the  commons  to 
inquire  into  public  abuses,  and  to  impeach  ministers.  Edward 
instituted  the  order  of  the  Garter.  His  reign  was  the  noon 
of  chivalry,  of  which  himself  and  his  son,  the  Black  Prince, 
were  the  mirrors.  ^  o 

Richard  11.,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  succeeded  his  grand-  137 
father,  at  the  age  of  eleven  years.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his 
reign  broke  out,  in  consequence  of  oppressive  taxation,  the  1381 
great  insurrection  of  the  villeins,  headed  by  Wat  Tyler,  Jack 
Straw,  and  others,  in  the  suppression  of  which  the  king 
showed  such  courage  and  presence  of  mind  as  gave  great 
hopes  of  his  future  excellence.  But  these  hopes  were  de- 
ceived :  Richard  was  proud,  indolent,  fond  of  pomp  and  ex- 
pense, and  attached  to  favorites.  Various  methods  were  em- 
ployed to  restrain  him,  but  without  effect :  he  had  succeeded 
in  obtaining  power  nearly  absolute,  when  the  duke  of  Here- 
ford, who  had  been  unjustly  banished,  returned,  during  the 
king's  absence  in  Ireland,  to  claim  the  inheritance  of  his 
father,  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  All  ranks  and  orders  flocked 
to  his  standard ;  the  king,  on  his  return,  was  deserted  by  his 
troops;  he  threw  himself  into  Flint  castle,  where,  induced 
by  the  base  treachery  and  perjury  of  the  earl  of  Northum- 
berland, he  surrendered.  He  was  led  to  London,  deposed  by 
parliament,  forced  to  abdicate,  confined  in  Pomfret  castle,  and 
there  murdered.  139S 

Richard  had  no  children;  he  had  declared  his  cousin,  Roger 
Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  son  of  Philippa,  only  daughter  of 
Lionel  duke  of  Clarence,  second  son  to  Edward  III.,  his  suc- 
cessor. Roger  was  killed  in  Ireland,  and  his  eldest  son  was 
a  boy  of  but  seven  years  of  age.  Henry  duke  of  Lancaster 
was  son  to  John,  third  son  of  Edward  III. ;  he  had  therefore 
evidently  no  right  to  the  crown.  But  on  the  deposition  of 
Richard  he  made  a  challenge  of  the  crown,  in  tern)s  in  which 
were  strangely  mingled  right  of  descent,*  conquest,  and 
merit.  At  all  events,  he  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  lords  and  commons ;  and  as  with  Henry's 
small  means  it  is  idle  to  talk  of  force,  he  was  plainly  a  lawful 

•  It  was  a  vulgar  notion  that  Edmund  earl  of  Lancaster,  and  not  Edward 
I.,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  III.;  hut  on  account  of  some  piTsoiial  t\v 
fcrmity,  he  had  been  set  aside,  and  his  brother  iinposod  on  the  nation.  Thrt 
present  duke  of  Lancaster  was  his  heir  by  his  mother;  and  if  that  stoiy 
was  true  he  was  the  true  heir  to  the  crown. 


344  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

monarch,  and  no  usurper.  The  constitution,  however,  re 
A.  D.  ceived  advantage  from  the  defect  m  his  title,  and  the  com- 
1402.  mons  advanced  greatly  in  importance  and  influence.  The 
Percies  rebelled  against  Henry ;  but  he  defeated  theao  and 
their  allies  at  Shrewsbury,  and  effectually  crushed  them.  His 
government  was  firm  and  vigorous,  and  advantageous  to  the 
nation ;  and,  but  for  the  crimes  by  which  the  crown  was  ac- 
quired, he  would  be  deserving  of  esteem  as  a  monarch.  Hia 
mind  is  said  to  have  been  harassed  by  remorse  for  what  he 
had  done,  and  no  acts  of  unnecessary  cruelty  sully  his  reign. 
1431.  Henry  V.  succeeded  with  universal  favor.  He  was  young, 
brave,  affable,  and  generous.  He  had  not  been  long  on  the 
throne  when  he  engaged  in  his  wars  with  France,  which 
gave  England  the  pride  of  Azincourt,  and  placed  his  son  on 
the  throne  of  that  country.  In  the  midst  of  his  glory  he  died 
in  his  thirty-fourth  year  at  Paris. 
1422.  Henry  VT.  being  but  a  year  old  at  his  accession,  his  uncles, 
the  dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester,  administered  the  public 
affairs,  and  the  bishop  of  Winchester  had  charge  of  the  king's 
person.  Notwithstanding  the  great  abilities  of  the  duke  of 
Bedford,  the  English  affairs  declined  in  France,  and  before 
the  king  was  of  age,  nearly  all  the  acquisitions  of  his  father 
in  that  country  were  lost.  After  the  death  of  the  duke  of 
Bedford,  the  duke  of  Gloucester  and  the  bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, now  a  cardinal,  contended  for  the  direction  of  the  king's 
1443.  councils.  In  the  affair  of  the  young  monarch's  marriage  the 
cardinal  was  victorious,  and  married  him  to  Margaret  of  An 
jou,  daughter  of  Regnier,  titular  king  of  Naples,  a  princess 
of  masculine  spirit  and  great  ability  and  address.  The  duke 
1447  of  Gloucester  was  afterwards  thrown  into  prison  and  mur- 
dered, a  deed  in  which  his  uncle  the  cardinal,  and  perhaps 
the  queen,  was  deeply  concerned. 

A  claimant  to  the  crown  now  appeared.  Richard  duke  of 
York  was  son  to  the  earl  of  Cambridge,  by  Anne,  sister  of 
the  late  earl  of  March,  in  whom  ended  the  males  of  the  house 
of  Mortimer.  The  rights  of  that  family,  therefore,  centered 
in  the  duke  of  York,  who  was  thus  descended  by  his  mother 
from  the  only  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  second  son 
of  Edward  III. ;  whereas  the  king  was  descended  from  the 
duke  of  Lancaster,  third  son  of  that  monarch.  The  duke  of 
York  was  a  man  of  most  amiable  manners,  of  large  posses- 
sions, of  extensive  connexions  and  influence.  The  loss  of 
France,  the  hatred  of  the  king's  ministers,  and,  above  all,  the 
murder  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  had  alienated  the  affec- 
tions of  the  people.  A  large  body  of  the  nobility,  and  the 
Commons  in  general,  sided  with  the  duke  of  York,  and  r©- 


iJOIS  OF  Eav.'/.ED  IT 


COIS  or  EICHAEK  iir. 


COIIT  Cr  EENF-Y  VIU 


4C0IV  CE  FQILIF  A!(D  U^SIi 


o         / 


CHAP.  VII.         DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  347 

course  was  had  to  arms.    The  battle  of  St.  Alban's  gained  a.  n 
by  the  Yorkists,  was  the  commencement  of  a  struggle  which  1455 
lasted  thirty  years,  and  in  which  were  fought  twelve  pitched 
battles.     The  battles  of  Blore-heath  and  Northampton  were  1460 
gained  by  the  York  party.     In  the  last  the  king  was  taken 
prisoner:  but  the  spirit  of  Margaret  was  unbroken;  she  col- 
lected a  large  army,  to  which  the  duke  of  York  was  impru- 
dent enough  to  give  battle  at  Wakefield,  where  he  was  de- 
feated and  slain.  Here  the  queen  and  her  friends  commenced 
that  ferocious  system  which,  being  imitated  by  the  other  party, 
casts  on  these  wars  such  an  aspect  of  horror  and  barbarity. 
The  head  of  the  duke  of  York  was  cut  off,  and  fixed  on  the 
gates  of  York ;  his  son,  the  earl  of  Rutland,  was  murdered 
in  cold  blood ;  the  earl  of  Salisbury  and  other  noblemen  were 
executed  by  martial  law. 

The  claims  of  the  duke  descended  to  his  son  Edward,  who 
gained  the  battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross.     The  Yorkists  were  1461 
defeated  at  St.  Alban's.    Edward  now  assumed  the  crown  by 
a  somewhat  irregular  popular  election. 

Edward  IV.  was  Ijandsome,  brave,  affable ;  but  licentious, 
and  barbarously  cruel.  The  Lancastrians  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter  at  Towton.  Henry  and  Margaret  fled  to  Scot- 1461 
land ;  but  the  indefatigable  queen  went  to  France,  and  m- 
ducing  Louis  XI.  to  ai=sist  her  with  some  troops  and  money, 
she  returned  and  raised  another  army,  but  was  again  totally  1464 
defeated  at  Hexham.  Margaret  fled  to  France,  and  Henry, 
being  discovered,  was  thrown  into  the  Tower.  The  hopes 
of  the  Lancastrians  seemed  now  quite  crushed,  when  a  cool- 
ness arising  between  Edward  and  the  great  oarl  of  Warwick, 
called  the  king-maker,  the  latter  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
Margaret,  and  drove  Edward  out  of  the  kingdom,  and  re- 
stored Henry ;  but  in  less  than  six  months  Edward  returned, 
and  Warwick  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Barnet. 
The  very  day  of  this  battle,  Margaret  and  her  son,  prince  1471 
C-1  ward,  landed  at  Weymouth.  Though  at  first  overwhelmed 
at  the  tidings  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Warwick,  she  re- 
sumed her  wonted  spirit,  collected  an  army,  and  marched  to 
Tewkesbury.  Here  fortune  proved  once  more  adverse;  the 
Lancastrian  army  was  totally  routed,  the  queen  and  prince 
taken,  and  the  latter  murdered,  almost  in  the  presence  of  Ed- 
ward. Henry  soon  afterwards  died,  murdered,  as  was  said, 
by  the  duke  of  Gloucester  in  the  Tower,  and  the  hopes  of  the 
Lancastrians  now  seemed  extinct.  ■ 

Edward  V.  was,  it  is  said,  with  his  brother  the  duke  of  1483 
York,  murdered  in  the  Tower  by  their  uncle,  the  duke  of 
(.iloucester,  who  usurped  the  crown  under  the  title  of  Rich- 


348  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOKLD.  PAKT  II. 

ard  III.  Tlie  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  had  aided  Richard 
in  his  projects,  being  discontented,  invited  over  the  earl  cf 
Richmond,  who  had  sheltered  himself  in  Britany ;  but  hav- 
ing taken  arms  before  the  arrival  of  this  nobleman,  he  was 
seized  and  executed  by  order  of  Richard.  Richmond  at  his 
landing  was  joined  by  many ;  Richard  hastened  to  oppose 

4.  D.  him :  Sie  engagement  took  place  on  the  field  of  Bosworth. 

485.  Richard  was  slain  fighting  bravely,  and  Richmond  was  sa- 
luted king  on  the  field  of  battle,  by  the  title  of  Henry  VII. 
With  Richard  III.  ended  tlie  line  of  Plantagenet,  which  had 
governed  England  with  glory,  on  the  whole,  during  three  cen- 
turies. The  new  house  was  called  that  of  Tudor,  from  the 
family  name  of  Henry  VII, 

The  title  of  Henry  was  exposed  to  all  the  defects  in  the 
original  Lancastrian  title ;  and  even  supposing  that  to  be 
good,  he  was  not  the  true  heir  of  that  family ;  for  he  claimed 
through  his  mother  Margaret,  sole  heiress  of  the  duke  of 
Somerset,  sprung  from  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster ; 
but  the  line  of  Somerset  derived  from  one  of  the  children  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  by  Catherine  Swynford,  during  the  life  of 
his  duchess,  and  was  therefore  illegitimate,  and  even  adulte- 
rous ;  and  though  Richard  II.  had  legitimated  these  children, 
they  were  never  conceived  to  have  any  claim  to  the  crown ; 
and  farther,  the  mother  of  Henry  was  still  alive.  Edward 
IV.  had  left  daughters,  of  whose  title  there  could  be  no  doubt, 
and  Henry  was  to  be  married  to  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  of  them; 
but  he  had  an  aversion  to  that  family,  and  he  would  not  ap- 
pear to  owe  his  crown  to  his  wife.  During  all  his  reign  he 
was  very  tender  on  this  subject  of  his  title. 
186.  After  a  good  deal  of  delay,  he  married  the  princess  Eliza- 
beth, but  he  never  loved  her.  The  duchess  of  Burgundy, 
sister  of  Edward  IV.,  raised  up  two  impostors  against  him, 
each  pretending  to  be  Richard  duke  of  York,*  who  had  es- 
caped from  the  Tower ;  but  the  vigilance  of  the  king  easily 
crushed  all  attempts  against  his  crown.  The  chief  defect  in 
Henry's  character  was  avarice ;  his  great  object  was  the  de- 
pression of  the  nobility,  a  point  the  more  easily  to  be  effect- 
ed, as  most  of  them  had  perished  in  the  civil  wars.  The 
landed  proprietors  obtained  power  to  alienate  their  estates; 
and  as  commerce  had  greatly  increased,  luxury  extended, 
and  many  of  the  commons  had  amassed  wealth,  the  object 
nearest  Henry's  heart  was  rapidly  effected,  though  we  are 

•  The  fate  of  this  prince  and  his  brother  it  involved  in  singular  myitery 
It  may  very  reasonably  be  doubted  whether  Perkin  Worbeclt  waa  an  impo* 
tvr  w  act. 


CHAP.  VII  DECLWE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  349 

not,  perhaps,  to  compliment  his  sagacity  with  having  fore- 
seen it 

Wars  between  France  and  England. 

As  they  were  now  at  an  end,  the  present  seems  a  good  oc- 
casion of  giving  a  consecutive  view  of  these  useless  and  dis- 
astrous wars. 

When  Edward  III.  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,*  his  a-  d. 
first  care  was  to  strengthen  himself  by  alliances  with  the  ^"^^ 
duke  of  Brabant,  the  count  of  Hainault,  his  father-in-law, 
and  other  princes  near  the  Rhine ;  and  as  the  English  had 
been  for  some  time  connected  by  trade  with  the  Flemings, 
and  that  people,  who  were  in  rebellion  against  their  earl, 
were  governed  by  James  van  Artiveld,  a  brewer  of  Ghent, 
Edward  sought  to  gain  that  demagogue  to  his  side,  and  he 
succeeded  in  his  object.  Thus  supported,  Edward  collected 
an  army,  and  entered  France;  but  nothing  of  moment  oc-  1339 
curred  in  this  first  campaign,  and  the  funds  of  the  English 
monarch  being  exhausted,  he  was  obliged  to  return  homr 
The  following  year  Edward  gained  a  naval  victory  over  tne 
French,  and  entered  France  at  the  head  of  100,000  men , 
but  Philip  declined  engaging,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  for 
a  year.  During  the  truce,  affairs  took  such  a  turn  in  Britany 
as  engaged  the  two  kingdoms  again  in  war.  Charles  of  Blois, 
nephew  to  the  French  king,  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Britany,  upon  whose  death  the  count  de  Montford, 
the  next  heir  male,  seized  the  duchy.  Feeling  he  could  not 
hold  it  agamst  the  power  of  France,  he  went  over  to  Eng- 
land, and  oflfered  to  do  homage  for  it  to  Edward.  Edward 
accepted  the  proposal,  and  sent  over  troops  to  assist  his  vas- 
sal. Montford  had  meantime  been  taken  prisoner ;  but  his 
wife  maintained  his  cause  with  masculine  energy.  This  strug- 
gle was  terminated  by  a  truce  for  tliree  years,  on  honorable  1343i 
terms  for  Edward  and  tlie  countess. 

The  truce  was  broken  the  next  year.  Edward  invaded  1344 
Normandy  with  an  army  of  30,000  men.  Philip  advanced  1346 
at  the  head  of  90,000.  The  English  king,  fearing  to  be  sur- 
rounded, retreated  towards  Flanders.  The  bridges  over  the 
Somme  were  broken  down,  and  a  French  force  was  on  the 
opposite  side  ;  but  the  English,  having  discovered  a  ford, 
passed  over  and  drove  off  the  French.  As  the  rear-guard  of 
the  English  was  passing,  the  army  of  Philip  came  up;  but, 
the  tide  rising,  it  could  not  pass,  and  had  to  go  round  by  the 
bridge  of  Abbeville.     Fearing  to  march  over  the  plains  of 


30 


•  See  0  22f> 


350  HISTOUY  01"  TIIE  WORLD.  PART  II. 

Picardy,  exposed  to  the  numerous  cavalry  of  the  French, 
Edward  resolved  to  give  battle,  and  he  drew  up  his  troops  ii, 
three  lines  on  a  rising  ground  near  the  village  of  Crecy :  tlie 
French  advanced  also  in  three  lines ;  but  they  were  fatigued 
with  their  march,  and  disordered.  The  battle  began  about 
three  o'clock  in  the  day  (Aug.  26),  and  ended  in  a  complete 
victory  on  the  part  of  the  English.  The  French  lost  40,000 
men,  among  whom  were  several  of  the  nobility,  1200  knights, 
and  1400  gentlemen, 
/jj  Edward  now  invested  Calais,  which  surrendered  after  a 
M~  siege  of  twelve  months.  The  inhabitants  were  expelled,  and 
the  town  peopled  with  English.  A  truce  was  concluded, 
which  the  dreadful  plague  that  ravaged  Europe  at  that  time 
caused  to  be  prolonged. 

During  the  truce  Philip  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
eon  John.  Charles  king  of  Navarre,  surnamed  the  Bad,  son 
of  Jane,  daughter  of  Louis  Hutin,  entered  secretly  into  cor- 
respondence with  the  king  of  England,  into  which  he  drew 
even  the  dauphin ;  but  that  prince  afterwards  repenting,  be- 
trayed the  king  of  Navarre  to  his  father,  who  threw  him  into 
prison.  Philip,  brother  of  the  king  of  Navarre,  put  all  his 
fortresses  into  a  state  of  defence,  and  called  on  Edward  for 

1356  assistance.    The  war  was  renewed. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, commanded  in  Guienne.  He  ventured  with  an  army 
of  12,000  men  to  advance  into  the  French  territory.  John 
collected  a  force  of  60,000  men,  and  came  up  with  him  at 
Maupertuis,  near  Poitiers.  The  Black  Prince  offered  to  sur- 
render his  conquests  for  a  safe  retreat :  he  was  refused :  he 
then  prepared  for  battle,  and  drew  up  his  little  army  with  the 
utmost  skill  (Sep.  19).  The  usual  impetuosity  of  the  French 
hurried  them  to  the  attack,  and  the  battle  ended  in  the  utter 
rout  of  the  French  army,  and  the  captivity  of  their  king. 
The  generosity  of  the  Black  Prince  to  his  captive,  only 
paralleled  by  that  of  Alp  Arslan,*  is  well  known.     John  was 

1357.  led  to  Bourdeaux,  and  thence  to  England,  and  a  truce  was 
concluded  for  two  years. 

France  was  now  in  a  complete  state  of  anarchy ;  but  the 
truce  and  the  want  of  money  prevented  Edward's  deriving 
any  advantage  from  it.  At  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  he 
invaded  and  ravaged  that  kingdom ;  but  finding  he  could  not 
make  a  durable  impression,  he  concluded  the  peace  of  Bre- 

13%.  tigni.     The  terms  of  this  peace  were,  that  John  should  pay 
three  millions  of  crowns  of  gold  for  his  ransom;  that  Edward 


o 


The  Black  Prince  entertaining  his  prisoner,  King  John  of  France. 


CHAP.  VIL         DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  353 

should  give  up  all  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  to  Nor- 
mandy, Touraine,  Maine,  and  Anjou,  for  which  he  was  to  re- 
ceive Poitou,  Saintonge,  Lagenois,  Perigord,  the  Limousin, 
Quercy,  and  other  neighboring  places,  with  Calais,  Guisnes, 
Montreuil,  and  Ponthieu ;  all  m  full  sovereignty,  no  homage 
for  them  or  Guienne  to  be  due  to  the  crown  of  France. 

Charles  V.  succeeding  John,  who  died  soon  after  the  peace 
of  Bretigni,  the  terms  of  which  were  never  executed,  some 
of  the  Gascon  nobles  appealed  to  him,  as  the  superior  lord, 
4  gainst  the  heavy  taxes  laid  on  them  by  the  Black  Prince,  in 
consequence  of  his  expedition  to  Spain.  That  able  monarch, 
who  nad  now  terminated  the  disorders  of  his  kingdom,  sum- 
moned the  prince  to  appear  in  his  court  at  Paris  to  answer 
the  complaint  of  his  vassals.  Edward  replied  that  he  would, 
but  it  would  be  at  the  head  of  60,000  men.  But  his  health 
was  declining;  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England;  and  a. d. 
the  war  terminated  in  the  English  being  stripped  of  Guienne,  1370 
except  Bourdeaux  and  Bayonne,  and  of  all  their  conquests  but 
Calais. 

During  the  reign  of  Richard  IT.  the  war  was  carried  on 
languidly.  One  of  its  most  remarkable  events  was  the  duke 
of  Gloucester,  the  king's  uncle,  having  the  hardihood  to  march  1380 
out  of  Calais  at  the  head  of  2000  horse  and  8000  foot,  enter 
the  heart  of  France,  and  ravage  all  the  country  till  he  joined 
his  allies  in  Britany.  The  duke  of  Burgundy  came  within 
sight  with  a  much  superior  army ;  but  such  was  the  terror 
the  French  felt  of  the  English,  that  he  did  not  venture  to 
attack  them.  Some  years  afterwards,  the  king  of  France  1386 
made  preparations  for  invading  England ;  but  his  fleet  was 
dispersed  by  a  storm,  and  many  of  the  ships  taken  by  the 
English.  The  Gascons  put  themselves,  in  this  reign,  once 
more  under  the  government  of  England.  Both  parties  were 
now  anxious  for  peace ;  but  as  the  terms  could  not  be  ad-  1396 
justed,  they  agreed  on  a  truce  for  twenty-five  years,  and 
Richard  was  affianced  to  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles,  8 
princess  only  seven  years  old. 

On  the  murder  of  Richard,  the  French  king  made  some  1401 
show  of  avenging  his  death ;  but  on  the  princess  Isabella  being 
given  up,  he  renewed  the  truce  with  Henry  IV.  Towards 
the  end  of  his  reign  Henry  began  to  take  some  part  in  the 
quarrels  of  the  Orleans  and  Burgundy  factions  in  France:  he  1411 
sent  a  small  body  of  troops  to  the  aid  of  the  latter,  and  after- 
wards a  larger  to  that  of  the  former. 

Henry  IV.  had  when  dying  exhorted  his  son  not  to  let  the  1415 
EInglish  nation  remain  long  at  rcsL     Henry  V.  therefore, 
30* 


354 


HISTORY  OF  THJS  WORLD. 


PART  II. 


taking  advantage  of  the  distracted  state  of  France,*  sent  am- 
bassadors to  Paris  with  most  exorbitant  proposals.  He  de- 
manded the  crown  of  France  (or  at  least  reserved  his  right  to 
it),  Normandy,  Touraine,  Maine,  Guienne,  and  the  homage 
of  Britany  and  Flanders,  the  princess  Catherme  in  marriage, 
and  2,000,000  crowns  of  gold  as  her  dower,  and  the  arrear 
of  king  John's  ransom.  The  French  offered  him  Guienne 
and  Saintonge,  and  a  dower  of  800,000  crowns.  Henry  forth- 
with prepared  for  war;  he  collected  a  fleet  and  army,  con- 
sisting of  6000  men-at-arms  and  24,000  foot,  at  Southampton, 
landed  in  Normandy,  and  took  the  town  of  Harfleur.  Having 
dismissed  his  transports,  he  was  obliged  to  march  his  army  to 
Calais  by  land.  An  army  of  14,000  men-at-arms  and  40,000 
foot,  under  the  constable  d' Albert,  was  now  collected  in  Nor- 
mandy. Henry  offered  to  give  up  Harfleur  for  a  safe  passage 
to  Calais :  this  offer  was  rejected :  he  marched  by  slow  jour- 
neys till  he  reached  the  Somme,  which  he  intended  passing 
where  Edward  had  passed,  but  found  it  strongly  guarded :  he 
at  length  seized  a  passage  near  St.  Quintin,  and  got  safely 
over.  He  now  marched  for  Calais;  but  on  ascending  tlie 
heights  near  Blangi  (Oct.  25)  he  saw  the  whole  French  army 
drawn  up  on  the  plain  of  Azincourt.  Henry's  army  was  now 
reduced  by  disease  and  the  sword  to  about  15,000  men.  His 
situation  was  similar  to  that  of  Edward  at  Crecy,  and  of  the 
Black  Prince  at  Poitiers,  and  he  made  the  same  judicious  dis- 
positions. The  French  acted  with  the  same  impetuosity  and 
imprudence:  the  final  result  was  similar.  Of  the  French 
10,000  were  slain,  among  whom  were  the  constable  himself 
and  some  of  the  chief  nobility ;  14,000  were  made  prisoners, 
among  whom  were  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and 
many  other  nobles  of  high  rank.  The  English  lost  but  forty 
men.  Want  of  funds  preventing  Henry,  like  his  predeces- 
sors, from  taking  full  advantage  of  this  victory,  he  returned 
to  England,  having  made  a  truce  with  the  enemy. 

During  this  truce  the  animosity  between  the  Armagnac 
and  Burgundian  parties  raged  with  the  greatest  violence. 
Henry  collected  an  army  of  25,000  men,  and  landed  in  Nor- 
mandy: several  towns  surrendered,  and,  being  reinforced 
with  15,000  more,  he  formed  the  siege  of  Rouen.  The  queen 
and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  now  made  a  treaty  with  him  simi- 
lar to  that  aflerwards  made  at  Troyes ;  but  before  it  was  com- 
pleted the  dauphin  and  duke  of  Burgundy  entered  into  a 
secret  treaty  to  share  the  supreme  power,  and  expel  tlie  in- 
vader.    But  the  murder  of  the  duke  taking  place,  his  son  in- 


*  See  p.  32a 


CHAP.  VII.         DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  355 

Btantly  formed  a  league  with  the  king  of  England,  and  the 
treaty  of  Troyes  was  concluded.     All  the  north  of  France 
was  rapidly  conquered,  and  the  dauphin  driven  beyond  the  a.  d. 
Loire.     In  this  state  of  affairs,  Henry  V.  died.  1422 

The  duke  of  Bedford  prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor.  The 
battle  of  Verneuil,  in  which  the  only  army  of  the  king  of  1424 
France  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  seemed  to  have  given 
the  finishing  stroke  to  his  fortunes.  Bedford  resolved  to  pene- 
trate into  the  south  of  France,  and  for  that  purpose  fornied  the 
siege  of  Orleans.  Every  effort  was  made  to  defend  this  city,  1428 
on  which  the  hopes  of  France  now  seemed  to  depend.  The 
siege  was  tedious,  but  the  English  were  gradually  gaining 
ground,  when  that  wonderful  visionary,  Joan  of  Arc,  appeared 
to  restore  the  sinking  destiny  of  France.  A  secret  horror 
thrilled  the  English  soldiers,  which  their  officers  either  shared 
or  could  not  remove ;  defeat  attended  them  everywhere ;  the 
provinces  and  towns  of  France  returned  joyfully  to  their  al- 
legiance ;  the  duke  of  Burgundy  was  reconciled  to  his  sove- 
reign, and  the  English  were,  in  a  few  years,  driven  out  of 
every  part  of  France  but  Calais.  Thus,  happily  for  both  1450 
countries,  ended  all  the  magnificent  projects  of  the  conquest 
of  France. 

Scotland. 

From  a  very  early  period  Scotland  had  been  governed  by 
kings.  These  were  frequently  engaged  in  wars  and  alliances 
with  the  northern  princes  of  the  heptarchy.  When  Duncan 
king  of  Scotland  was  murdered  by  Macbeth,  an  army  was 
sent  by  Edward  the  Confessor  against  the  usurper,  and  Mal- 
colm, the  rightful  heir,  was  restored  to  the  tlirone.  This 
prince  espoused  the  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  and  many  of 
the  English  fled  to  Scotland  fi-om  the  tyranny  of  the  Con- 
queror. The  Scots  began  now  to  make  occasional  inroads 
into  England.  In  one  of  these,  William  king  of  Scotland 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Henry  II.,  and,  as  a  part  of  the  condi- 
tions of  his  liberty,  was  forced  to  do  homage  for  his  whole 
kingdom,  the  Scottish  kings  having  hitherto  done  so  only  for 
Cumberland,  which  they  held.  Richard  L,  however,  re- 
nounced this  right 

On  the  death  of  Alexander  III.,  near  a  century  afterwards,  1286 
a  dispute  arose  about  the  succession  to  the  Scottish  throne. 
That  monarch  having  left  no  descendant  but  a  granddaugh- 
ter, who  did  not  long  survive  him,  the  right  fell  to  the  de- 
scendants of  David  carl  of  Huntingdon,  third  son  of  David  1. ; 
of  these  John  Baliol  was  grandson  of  Margaret,  the  earl's 
eldest  daughter ;  Robert  Bruce  was  son  of  Isabel,  his  second 


356  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

daughter.  The  rules  of  succession  not  hemg  at  that  time 
well  established,  it  was  a  doubtful  question  whic^  'vaa  the 
true  heir.  To  avoid  a  recourse  to  arms,  the  parliament  of 
Scotland  determined  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  arbitration  of 
EJdward  I.,  a  prince  extolled  for  wisdom  and  prudence.  Ed- 
ward seized  this  occasion  of  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of 
Scotland :  he  appeared  on  the  frontier  with  a  large  army,  and 
compelled  all  the  Scottish  nobles,  including  the  two  candi- 
dates, to  swear  fealty  to  him  as  liege  lord ;  he  made  them  give 
him  possession  of  the  kingdom,  and  then  declaring  Baliol  the 

A.  R  true  heir,  put  him  in  possession  of  it,  on  his  renewing  his 

292.  oath  of  fealty. 

The  Scottish  nation,  and  even  their  king,  were  indignant 
at  being  thus  trepanned  and  degraded ;  a  secret  alliance  was 
formed  with  France;  a  dispensation  of  the  king's  oath  of 
fealty  was  procured  from  the  pope ;  and,  on  being  summoned 
to  appear  in  an  English  parliament  at  Newcastle,  Baliol  re- 

1296.  fused  to  attend.  Edward  entered  Scotland  at  the  head  of 
30,000  foot  and  4000  horse,  and  quickly  overran  and  subdued 
the  entire  kingdom.  Baliol  was  forced  to  submit  and  implore 
forgiveness,  English  garrisons  were  placed  in  the  fortresses, 
and  earl  Warrenne  left  governor. 

This  earl  being  obliged  to  return  to  England  on  account  of 
his  health,  the  administration'was  left  in  the  hands  of  Ormsby 
and  Cressingham,  who  oppressed  the  people  without  mercy. 
A  gentleman,  named  William  Wallace,  was  so  provoked  as 
to  kill  an  English  officer.  Knowing  he  had  no  mercy  to  ex- 
pect, he  fled  to  the  woods  and  collected  a  party,  with  whom 
he  continually  harassed  the  English ;  numbers  joined  him ; 
several  of  the  principal  barons  countenanced  him ;  and  the 
whole  country  was  on  the  eve  of  rising,  when  Warrenne  col- 
lected an  army  of  40,000  men,  and  suddenly  returned.  Mak- 
ing an  attack  on  the  camp  of  Wallace,  near  Stirling,  the 
English  were  totally  routed,  and  Cressingham  slain.  The 
nation  now  rose,  and  bestowed  on  Wallace  the  title  of  regent. 
The  English  were  expelled ;  but  Edward,  who  had  been  in 
Flanders,  returned,  collected  an  army  of  80,000  men,  and 
entered  the  country.  The  Scots  ventured  to  give  him  battle 
at  Falkirk  (June  22),  when  they  were  routed  with  great 

298.  slaughter.     They  still  carried  on  the  contest;  but  Wallace 
was  betrayed  by  his  friend  Sir  John  Monteith,  and  the  intrepid 

306.  patriot  was  executed  in  London  as  a  rebel. 

Robert  Bruce,  who  had  been  in  the  English  service,  now 
stepped  forward  to  defend  his  own  and  his  country's  rights. 
The  Scottish  nation  rose  once  more ;  the  English  were  driven 
out  of  the  country,  and  Bruce  was  crowned  at  Scone.    Ed- 


T^m. 


View  on  thb  Volga  at  Simbibsk-tuk  Jigocleb 


ICOIH  OP  WiriUM  AND  MAET^ 


VQIS^S  SJJOBOS  n 


CHAP.  VII  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  359 

ward  now  found  he  had  all  his  work  to  do  over  again ;  he 
eent  an  army,  under  Aymer  de  Valence  earl  of  Pembroke, 
who  defeated  Bruce,  and  forced  him  to  take  shelter  in  the 
Western  Isles.  The  king  was  himself  advancing,  deter- 
mined to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the  Scots,  when  he  sick-  a.  d. 
ened  and  died  at  Carlisle,  with  his  last  breath  charging  his  1307 
son  to  prosecute  the  war. 

Edward  II.  was  anxious  to  get  back  to  England,  and  after 
a  few  feeble  efforts  he  left  Scotland.  Bruce,  who  had  returned, 
made  himself  master  of  the  whole  kingdom  except  a  few  for- 
tresses, and  even  made  inroads  into  England.  Edward  was 
roused;  he  collected  a  large  force,  and  entered  Scotland. 
The  English  army  was  80,000  strong ;  that  of  Bruce  did  not 
exceed  30,000.  But  he  ventured  to  give  them  battle  at  Ban- 
nockburn,  near  Stirling  (June  14,)  where  he  totally  defeated  1314. 
them.  This  victory,  one  of  the  most  glorious  ever  obtained, 
secured  the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  reduced  to  nothing 
all  the  hopes  founded  on  the  iniquitous  attempt  of  Eklward  L 
One  more  fruitless  effort  was  made  by  Edward,  and  a  truce  1323w 
was  then  concluded  for  thirteen  years. 

On  the  death  of  Robert  Bruce,  who  left  a  son,  a  minor, 
Edward  III.  secretly  encouraged  the  son  of  John  Baliol  to 
put  forward  his  claim  to  the  Scottish  kingdom,  raised  a  small  1332 
army,  with  which  he  landed  on  the  coast  of  Fife,  and  ad- 
vanced into  the  heart  of  the  country,  where  he  defeated  the 
Scottish  army  of  30,000  men,  under  the  earl  of  Mar.  He 
tlicn  took  Perth,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone.  But  having 
dismissed  the  greater  part  of  his  English  followers,  he  was  soon 
after  driven  back  into  England.  He  here  made  large  offers 
to  Edward,  particularly  engaging  to  renew  the  homage  which 
had  been  given  up  by  Mortimer  in  Edward's  minority,  if  he 
would  assist  him  to  regain  his  throne.  Edward  collected  a 
large  army ;  the  Scots  encountered  him  at  Halidon-hill,  near 
Berwick  (July  19),  and  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  nearly  1333 
20,000  men  and  the  chief  of  their  nobility.  But  still  Scot- 
land was  unconquered.  The  English  forces  might  overrun 
and  destroy  the  country ;  but  as  soon  as  they  retired,  the  na- 
tives repossessed  it,  and  again  bade  them  defiance, 

David,  the  son  of  Robert  Bruce,  had  taken  refiige  in 
France,  but  had  returned,  and  driven  Baliol  out  of  Scotland.  1346 
At  the  solicitation  of  the  king  of  France,  with  whom  he  had 
made  an  alliance,  he  invaded  England.  Queen  Philippa,  at 
the  head  of  12,000  men,  met  him  at  Neville's  Cross,  neai 
Durham  (October  17,)  and  the  Scottish  king  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner.  After  a  captivity  of  ten  years,  he  was 
released  for  a  ransom  of  100,000  marks. 


360  HISTORY  OF  THE  WoSLD.  PART  II 

A  Dk      Richard  II.  invaded  Scotland,  at  the  head  of  60,000  men 

1385  and  ravaged  the  country,  as  usual;  but  in  the  mean  time 

30,000  Scots  retaliated  on  the  west  of  England,  and  Richard 

1401.  returned  without  having  effected  any  thing,  Henry  lY.  led 
an  army  into  Scotland  to  no  purpose.  The  Scots  immediately 

1402.  after  invaded  England,  but  were  defeated  by  the  Percies  at 
Humbledovm.  The  Scots  afterwards  aided  the  Percies  in 
their  rebellion. 

Robert  III.  of  Scotland  was  a  feeble  prince :  his  brother, 
the  duke  of  Albany,  seized  the  government  and  aimed  at  the 
throne :  to  effect  this  purpose,  he  resolved  to  remove  his 
nephews ;  and  he  threw  David,  the  elder,  into  prison,  where 
he  perished  of  hunger.     Robert,  to  save  James,  his  younger 

1407.  son,  sent  hun  to  France ;  but  the  ship  was  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  Henry  FV.  refused  to  restore  the  young  prince  to 
liberty.  Robert  died  of  grief;  and  now,  by  possessing  the 
person  of  the  young  king,  Henry  was  able  to  keep  the  duke 
of  Albany  in  dependence,  and  secure  his  kingdom  from  in- 
roads. He,  however,  gave  the  young  monarch  an  excellent 
education. 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  the  French  and  Scot- 
tish nations  had  been  in  strict  alliance  against  the  common 
enemy.  When  Henry  V.  had  had  such  a  career  of  success 
in  France,  the  Scottish  nation  and  the  regent  saw  plainly 
that  they  must  submit  if  that  country  was  conquered,  and  a 

1421.  body  of  7000  men  was  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  dauphin,  who 
treated  them  with  great  favor.  Throughout  tlie  war,  Scottish 
volunteers  crowded  to  the  French  standard ;  and,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.,  the  duke  of  Bedford  recommended  it  as  the 
best  policy,  to  marry  the  young  king  of  Scots  to  the  king's 
cousin,  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Somerset,  and  give  him 

1423.  his  liberty.  This  was  done,  and  James,  during  his  short 
reign,  proved  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  monarchs. 

1437  He  was  murdered  by  his  kinsman  the  earl  of  Athol.  During 
the  wars  of  the  Roses,  Scotland  was  too  much  distracted  by 
factions  to  be  able  to  take  any  advantage  of  the  state  of  Eng- 
land. In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  James  IV.  gave  counte- 
nance and  assistance  to  Perkin  Warbeck ;  but  the  war  was 

1502  happily  terminated  by  the  marriage  of  the  Scottish  monarch 
with  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry. 

Scandinavia. 

Denmark  and  Norway  we  have  seen  early  formed  into 
monarchies.  Sweden  remained  longer  divided  into  small  in- 
dependent districts.  The  Swedes  and  Goths  at  length  agreed 
to  form  one  state,  to  be  governed  alternately  by  a  Goth  of  the 


CHAP.  VII  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  361 

race  of  Svercher,  and  a  Swede  of  that  of  Eric.    The  natural  ^  n 
consequence  was  endless  assassination.     In  the  14th  century  IXM 
the  race  of  Odis  in  Sweden  was  extinct,  and  a  foreigner  waa 
placed  on  the  throne.   In  the  same  century,  the  ancient  lines 
in  Denmark  and  Norway  ended  with  Waldemar  and  Olaf. 
Margaret,  daughter  of  the  former,  mother  of  the  latter,  was 
heiress  to  both.     She  defeated  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  king 
of  Sweden, -and  forced  him  to  abdicate,  and  then,  by  the  Union  1.J98 
of  Calmar,  united  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms.     Mar- 
garet, having  no  children,  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew 
Eric,  of  the  ducal  house  of  Pomerania,  but  he  was  driven  out 
of  the  three  kingdoms.    Christopher,  a  duke  of  Bavaria,  was  14<J'J 
invited  to  Denmark,  and  the  other  kingdoms  submitted  to  his 
government.     On  his  death  Christian,  son  of  the  count  of  i*48 
Oldenburg,  was  chosen  king  of  Denmark,  and  by  his  mother, 
who  was  sister  to  the  count  of  Holstein,  he  obtained  that 
country,  which  was  now  made  a  duchy.     Norway  followed  1*69 
the  example  of  Denmark ;  but  Carl  Cnutson  and  Steno  Sture 
maintained  the  independence  of  Sweden  against  hira  and  his 
two  successors 

Poland. 

The  Poles  are  a  portion  of  the  Slavonians,  the  last  great 
race  which  arrived  in  Europe.     They  were  at  first  divided 
into  several  small  states,  for  ever  at  war  with  each  other. 
When  they  embraced  the  Christian  religion,  they  united  un- 
der the  government  of  a  duke.     In  the  thirteenth  century,  1^95 
Przemysl,  of  the  house  of  the  Piasti,  assumed  the  royal  dig- 
nity. This  race  ruled  Poland  five  hundred  years,  and  it  end^ 
with  Casimir  the  Great,  in  1370.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  1^0 
sister's  son,  Louis  of  Anjou,  king  of  Hungary,  also  named 
the  Great     This  king  left  only  daughters:   Sigismund  of 
Luxemburg,  the  husband  of  Mary,  the  eldest,  was  king  of  1382. 
Hungary,  and  Louis  had  provided  for  the  continued  union  of 
the  two  crowns;  but  the  Poles  and  Hedwig,  his  other  daugh- 
ter, rejected  that  arrangement,  and  that  princess  gave  her  13»6 
hand  to  Jagellon,  great-prince  of  Lithuania,  who  with  his 
people  embraced  the  Christian  religion.    The  kingdom  flour- 
ished greatly  under  this  king :  its  export  of  com  was  con- 
siderable.   In  the  reign  of  iiis  son,  by  the  choice  of  the  Ilun-  1437 
garians,  the  two  countries  were  agam  united ;  but  this  young 
monarch  lost  both   life  and  crown  in  the  battle  of  Varna,  ^♦M 
against  the  Turkish  sultan  Moorad. 

His  brother  Casimir  succeeded  him  in  Poland,  and  wa* 
one  of  the  greatest  princes  of  his  time.     He  made  ^eat  ac- 
quisitions from  the  Teutonic  order  of  knights.  Casimir  rei^^n- 
81 


362  HISTOUY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11 

ed  nearly  half  a  century,  and  saw  Vladislaus,  one  of  his  sons 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 

Hungary. 

The  house  of  Arpad  ruled  four  hundred  years  in  Hungary 
A,  a  and  ended  with  Andrew  III.     On  tlie  death  of  this  monarch, 
1301.  the  people  were  split  into  various  parties ;  that  of  CharlCif 
310.  Robert,  of  the  Neapolitan  branch  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  pre- 
vailed, and  he  was  called  to  the  throne.     His  Vigor  and  wis- 
dom, in  the  course  of  a  long  reign,  raised  the  kingdom  to  great 
343.  glory ;  and  the  long  reign  also  of  his  son  Louis  stOl  further 
increased  its  power  and  dignity.     But  Louis  unfortunately 
1382.  died  just  as  the  Ottoman  power  was  growing  formidable  on 
the  frontiers,  and  the  kingdom  was  again  distracted  by  fac- 
1386.  tion.     Sigismund,  a  stranger,  was  chosen  king,  and  reigned 
for  more  than  half  a  century.    He  lost  the  battle  of  Nicopolia 
to  the  Turks ;  but  circumstances  prevented  their  attempting 
to  follow  up  their  victory.     Sigismund  was  succeeded  in  the 
empire  and  in  Hungary  by  his  son-in-law,  Albert  of  Austria- 
1437.  Albert's  successor,  Ladislaus,  being  a  posthumous  child,  the 
Hungarians  gave  the  crown,  for  his  minority,  to  Vladislaus 
king  of  Poland.     On  his  death  John  Hunniades  was  made  re- 
1456.  gent,  and  at  the  battle  of  Belgrade  he  gave  an  effectual  check 
1458.  to  the  Ottoman  power.    The  young  king  lived  but  two  years 
after  Hunniades ;  and  the  nation  then  chose  Matthias  the  son 
of  the  valiant  John  Hunniades,  to  be  their  sovereign.     Mat- 
thias was  the  greatest  prince  of  his  age,  and  in  his  wars  with 
Austria  and  Bohemia  victory  always  attended  him.     On  his 
490.  death,  the  Hungarians  elected  Vladislaus,  eon  of  Casimir  kimr 
of  Poland,  already  king  of  Bohemia. 

The  Ottomans. 

When  the  Mongols  of  Chingis  Khan  had  burst  through  the 
barriers  jfKhowaresm  over  Persia  and  Lesser  Asia,  Suleiman. 
1234.  one  of  tlie  noblest  of  the  Turkish  tribe  of  Oghuz,  migrated  ai 
the  head  of  50,000  souls  from  Khorassan  to  Armenia.  After 
remaining  seven  years  in  that  country,  Suleiman  prepared  to 
return  to  his  former  abode ;  but  chancing  to  be  drowned  in 
crossing  the  Euphrates  at  Jaaber,  his  followers  dispersed.  i\ 
part  remained  in  Syria,  another  part  went  to  Lesser  Asia. 

Of  the  four  sons  of  Suleiman,  two  returned  to  Khorassan , 
the  two  younger,  Dindar  and  Ortoghrul,  retired  with  foui 
hundred  families  to  the  mountains  east  of  Erzeroom,  and 
thence  roved  westwards,  to  seek  a  retreat  in  the  dominions 
of  Ala-ed-deen,  the  great  prince  of  the  Seljookians  of  Iconium 
On  their  way,  they  came  to  where  two  armies  were  fighting 


HAP.  VI I  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  365 

Ortoghrul  chivalrously  resolved  tx)  assist  Uie  weaker,  and  lue 
aid  turned  the  scale.  It  was  Ala-ed-deen  whom  he  made 
victorious  over  an  army  of  Tatars ;  and  the  grateful  sultan 
bestowed  honors  and  pasture-land  on  his  ally.  This  land,  the 
cradle  of  the  Ottoman  power,  is  the  Sanjak  of  Sultan  Oni,  the 
ancient  Phrygia  Epictetos.  Here  they  fed  their  herds  on  the 
mountains  in  summer,  and  in  winter  descended  into  the  plain ; 
and  they  lived  in  amity  with  the  neighboring  subjects  of  the 
Greek  emperors. 

Osman,  the  son  of  Ortoghrul,  resolved  on  conquest     His 
dervishes  excited  the  courage  of  his  soldiers,  and  he  estab-  a.  !> 
Ii&hed  a  kingdom  in  Bithynia,  of  which  Brusa,  at  the  foot  of  129*^' 
the  Mysian  Olympus,  became  the  capital.     It  is  from  this 
monarch  that  the  western  Turks  derive  their  appellation  of 
Ottomans,  or  more  properly  Osmans. 

In  the  time  of  his  son  Orchan,  a  great  part  of  Lesser  Asia  132fi 
was  subdued  by  the  Turkish  arms.  The  isles  of  Greece  felt 
their  power :  the  court  of  Constantinople  was  split  into  fac- 
tions ;  civil  war  raged  in  the  empire ;  each  party  sought  the 
aid  of  the  Turks.  John  Cantacuzenes,  a  man  of  talent  and 
virtue,  on  ascending  the  throne,  felt  that  its  strength  was 
gone,  and  retired  to  the  solitude  of  mount  Athos.  His  suc- 
cessor, John  Palaeologus,  was  sunk  in  pleasure.  Under  the 
reign  of  Orchan  the  Ottoman  institutions,  one  of  which  was 
the  formation  of  the  corps  of  Janizaries  {Yeni-cheri,  new  sol- 
diers) were  established,  chiefly  under  the  direction  of  his 
brother  and  vizier,  the  able  Ala-ed-deen. 

Moorad  (Amurath),  the  son  and  successor  of  Orchan,  took  1359 
Adrianople,  the  second  city  of  the  empire,  and  made  it  the 
European  capital  of  his  dominions.  By  marriage  he  acquired 
the  greater  part  of  Kermian,  and  by  purchase  he  gained 
Hamid.  Philippopolis  was  taken  from  the  Greeks;  but 
Moorad  found  a  more  obstinate  resistance  from  the  Servians 
and  Bulgarians.  He  fell  at  Cossova,  assassinated  by  a  valiant  1389 
Servian  youth. 

Bayezeed  (Bajezet)  Yilderim,  i.  e.  Lightning,  a  brave  but 
headstrong  prince,  succeeded  his  father,  and  his  first  act  was 
to  put  to  death  his  only  brother.  The  forces  of  Western 
Europe,  Germany,  Hungary,  and  France,  commanded  by 
Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary,  the  counts  of  Nevers,  la  Marche, 
and  Eu,  the  admiral  de  Vienne,  the  marshal  Boucicault,  the 
lord  of  Coucy,  and  several  others  of  the  prime  nobility  of 
France  and  Germany,  with  60,000  men,  advanced  to  Nico-  139G 
polis.  Bayezeed  led  against  them  a  more  numerous  host. 
The  Christians  fought  with  their  wonted  valor,  but  yielded 
to  the  numbers  and  the  discipline  of  the  Moslems:  tlicir 
81* 


366  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  II 

leaders  were  slain  or  made  captive.  Sigisraund  escaped  to 
the  Danube  with  five  companions,  and  thence  to  Constanti- 
nople. Bosnia  was  overrun  by  Bayezeed,  and  he  was  pre- 
paring to  invest  Constantinople  a  second  time,  when  the 
progress  of  his  conquests  westwards  was  checked  by  the  ap- 
proach on  the  east  of  the  Tatars  under  Timoor.     Bayezeed 

A  D  hastened  to  oppose  them.    On  the  plains  of  Angora  he  fou/rht 

1402  with  a  courage  worthy  of  his  race,  but  was  defeated  and  taKen 

402.  prisoner.     Grief  and  vexation  caused  his  death,  and  the  con 

queror  restored  his  body  to  the  sepulchre  of  his  fathers. 

The  captivity  and  death  of  Bayezeed  weakened  and  dis- 
tracted the  Turkish  power :  the  sons  of  the  captive  sultan 
contended  with  each  other ;  and  it  was  only  by  the  wisdom 

1413.  of  Mohammed  I.  and  his  vizier  Bayezeed  that  the  empire  re- 
gained its  vigor.     His  son,  Moorad  II.,  a  valiant  and  merci- 

14-22.  fijl  hero,  subdued  the  greater  part  of  what  remained  to  the 
Greek  emperors.  John  VII.  in  vain  sought  aid  in  Europe ; 
in  vain  he  visited  Italy,  and  agreed  to  an  union  of  the  churches. 
The  union  was  rejected  by  the  Greek  clergy,  and  theological 
controversy  reigned  more  violently  than  ever  in  the  falling 
empire  of  the  East. 

Moorad  having  made  peace  with  Hungary,  adhered  to  it 
faithfully.  But  while  he  was  at  Magnesia,  in  Asia,  the 
papal  legate  relea.=ed  the  Hungarians  from  their  oath,  and 
they  seized  this  opportunity  of  assailing  the  Ottoman  do- 
minions. King  Vladislaus  and  John  Hunniades  marched  to 
the  Black  Sea.     Moorad  appeared ;  the  battle  was  fought  at 

1 144.  Varna.  In  the  front  of  his  array  Moorad  displayed  the  vio- 
lated treaty.  Victory  was  long  on  the  side  of  the  Christians, 
when  Moorad,  it  is  said,  pointing  to  the  treaty,  called  aloud  on 
God  to  avenge  their  perjury,  and  at  that  moment  the  young 
king  rushed  amid  the  ranks  of  the  Janizaries  and  fell,  and 
victory  declared  for  the  sultan.  This  excellent  prince,  twice 
during  his  reign,  resigned  his  crown  for  the  enjoyment  of  a 
private  life,  but  was  each  time  recalled  to  the  throne  by  the 
danger  of  the  state. 

1451.  Moorad's  son,  Mohammed  11.,  joined  to  the  valor  of  his 
father  a  greater  spirit  of  enterprise.  The  doom  of  Constanti- 
nople was  now  fixed.  It  had  stood  in  magnificence  for  1123 
years,  had  seen  its  western  rival  more  than  once  open  b.er 
gates  to  the  conqueror,  while  itself  had  but  once  submitted, 
and  had  quickly  resumed  its  dignity;  but  now  its  dynasty 
and  its  religion  were  to  change,  the  rovers  of  the  steppaa 
were  to  lord  it  in  the  palace  of  the  Caesars,  and  the  crescent 
was  to  replace  the  glittering  cross  on  the  summit  of  its  great 
temple.    Mohammed  invested  the  city :  during  fifty  days  the 


CHAP.  VU.  DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWEE.  367 

massive  walls  were  assailed  by  artillery  of  enormous  size  and 
power.    The  Turks  at  length  burst  in :  Constantino,  the  last 
of  the  Cffisars,  fell  at  the  breach,  sword  in  hand,  with  a  a.  d 
courage  worthy  of  the  greatest  of  those  whom  he  represented.  1453 
The  city  was  plundered,  the  inhabitants  sold  into  slavery. 

The  Peloponnesus  was  speedily  overrun,  and  the  little  1461 
empire  of  Trebizond,  which  had  lasted  258  years,  submitted 
at  the  appearance  of  Mohammed.  The  Palseologi  in  the 
Peloponnesus  were  forced  to  yield  to  the  Ottoman  arms ;  but 
in  Albania,  George  Castriot  (called  for  his  valor  by  the  Turks 
Scanderberg,  i.  e.  Prince  Alexander)  resisted  the  Turkish 
power  witli  success  as  long  as  he  lived.  The  battle  of  Bel- 
tjfrade  checked  effectually  the  progress  of  Mohammed  on  the 
side  of  Hungary.  The  Servians  were  completely  subdued. 
The  voivode  of  Wallachia,  the  merciless  Drakul,  made  a 
more  vigorous  defence ;  but  he  was  defeated,  and  that  country 
also  reduced  to  submission.  Carem:iania  was  forced  to  submit 
to  the  rule  of  Mohammed ;  but  the  knights  of  Rhodes  repelled 
him  from  tlieir  island. 

The  Tatars*— Timoor. 

Timoor  (i.  e.  Iron)  was  descended  from  Berla,  the  Emir-  1335 
ul-umera  of  Jagatai,  the  son  of  Chingis  Khan.  The  youth 
of  Timfxir  was  spent  in  freebooting  and  the  chase :  in  his 
twenty-seventh  year  he  rendered  important  military  service 
to  the  emir  Husein  of  the  house  of  Jagatai,  who  then  ruled 
over  Khorassan  and  Transoxiana,  against  the  khan  of  Tur- 
kestan. The  hand  of  the  emir's  sister  was  his  reward ;  but 
on  her  death  within  four  years,  Timoor  cast  off  allegiance, 
and  war  broke  out  between  him  and  the  emir.  On  the  death 
of  the  latter  Timoor  occupied  the  throne,  and  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Samarkund.  He  turned  his  arms  first  against  the 
sultan  of  the  Jetans  ( Getce .')  and  tiie  shah  of  Khowaresm, 
then  subdued  Khorassan,  and  ravaged  Persia  during  three 
years:  with  the  speed  of  light  he  now  swept  over  Great 
Tatary,  and  shortly  afterwards  feasted  his  host  on  the  banks  1391 
of  the  Volga.  A  campaign  of  five  years  wasted  Persia ;  and 
Bagdad,  Mesopotamia,  Koordistan,  Armenia,  and  Georgia 
were  conquered  by  the  Tatars.  Timoor  next  poured  his  l'N8 
tiordes  over  the  fertile  plains  of  India.  The  plunder  of  Delhi 
rewarded  their  efforts,  and  he  pursued  the  flying  Indians  to 

*  Wo  coiiBiilcr  the  diatinction  between  Turks  and  Tatars  to  have  been 
tlearly  shown  by  M.  Klaproth:  the  former  are  of  Caucasian,  the  latter  of 
Mongol  race.  Yet  the  Tatars  of  Timoor  appear  rather  of  mixed  race  ;  at 
lca»t,  Timoor  himself  i«  described  of  a  fair  and  ruddy  complexion,  very  dif- 
'irent  from  that  of  a  Mongol.  Tartar,  the  corruption  of  Tatar,  owea  ita 
ariipu  to  a  pun  of  St.  Louis  on  Tatar  and  the  Latin  T^rttrut. 


Sft8  HIBTOBT  OP  THB  WORLD.  PART  11 

the  sources  of  the  sacred  Gangea  The  same  year  the  Tata; 
conqueror  wintered  on  the  plains  of  Karabagh,  west  of  the 
Caspian;  in  the  spring  he  laid  waste  Georgia,  took  Sivas, 
one  of  tlie  finest  and  most  populous  cities  of  Lesser  Asia, 
dnd  cruelly  put  the  garrison  to  death;  conquered  all  the 
4.  D.  towns  to  Aleppo,  defeated  there  the  Egyptian  army,  and  took 
<101.  that  city ;  and,  at  length,  made  a  general  massacre  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Bagdad. 

Timx)r  wintered  once  more  on  the  plains  of  Karabagh. 
The  princes  whom  Bayezeed  had  robbed  of  their  dominions 
had  cast  themselves  on  tlie  protection  of  the  Tatar,  and  Ti- 
moor  prepared  for  war  with  the  haughty  Ottoman.  Negotia- 
tion was  tried  in  vain ;  Bayezeed  was  hardened  in  obstinacy, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Angora,  on  the  very  plain  where 
Pompeius  had  defeated  Mithridates,  the  Turkish  army  of 
120,000  men  engaged  the  Tatar  host  of  700,000.  From  morn- 
!402.  ing  to  night  of  a  burning  day  (July  20)  endured  this  last 
battle  of  either  monarch,  and  it  ended  in  the  total  rout  of  the 
Turkish  host,  and  the  captivity  of  its  leader.  The  tale  of  the 
iron  cage  is  a  fabulous  legend.  The  Tatars  overran  all  Les- 
ser Asia;  Timoor  reached  Iconium.  Bayezeed  died  of  apo- 
4C1.  plexy  at  Akshehr  (March  8),  and  two  years  afterwards  Ti- 
moor breathed  his  last  on  his  march  against  China. 

Timoor  left  his  empire  to  his  grandson  Peer  Mohammed 
Jehangheer ;  but  this  prince  was  unfortunate  in  the  contest 
for  the  crown  with  his  brother  Khulleel  Sultan,  and  the  em- 
pire eventually  fell  into  the  hands  of  Shah  Rokh,  the  virtuous 
son  of  Timoor.  But  at  length  the  fortune  of  the  house  of 
Timoor  was  forced  to  yield  before  that  of  the  Usbegs;  and 
after  a  glorious  struggle  against  Shybuk  Khan  tlie  Usbeg. 
the  able  and  celebrated  Baber  retired  to  Hindoostan,  and 
founded  that  great  empire,  the  nominal  sovereign  of  which, 
his  lineal  descendant,  still  sits,  a  monument  of  fallen  great- 
ness, in  Delhi,  beneath  the  protection  of  a  British  company 
of  merchants.  It  was  while  Baber  was  on  the  throne  that 
the  Portuguese  first  appeared  oti  the  coast  of  Malabar. 

The  Turkman  tribes  of  the  Black  and  the  White  Wether, 
80  named  from  their  standards,  had  fixed  themselves  on  the 
western  frontier  of  Persia.  On  the  death  of  Timoor  they 
advanced  into  that  country :  the  former  tribe  established  its 
empire  in  Aderbijan  and  the  adjacent  provinces ;  the  latter 
extended  its  power  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Persia.  They 
encountered  the  arms  both  of  the  descendants  of  Timoor  and 
the  Ottoman  sultans. 


QOIS  QV  VICTOWAr 


iiii 


iilli 


-HAP.  VII.  DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER,  371 

Spain. 

The  peninsula  contained  now  four  Christian  kingdcms, 
«;a8tile,  Aragon,  Navarre,  and  Portugal ;  and  one  Mohamrae- 
*an,  Granada. 

Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise,  king  of  Castile,  was  chiefly  distin-  a.  d 
£uished  by  his  attachment  to  science,  and  by  his  code,  the  1262 
oiete  Paxtidas.     His  son  Sancho  rebelled  against  him,  and 
disquieted  the  latter  part  of  his  life.     The  reigns  of  Sancho 
tnd  hifl  two  successors  were  periods  of  anarchy  and  turbu- 
ijencp.     Peter  the  Cruel  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  135Q 
'^yranny  and  crime.     A  rebellion,  headed  by  his  illegitimate 
orother,  Henry  of  Transtamara,  supported  by  Aragon  and 
Portugal,  broke  out,  and  drove  him  from  his  throne.     Henry 
was  aided  by  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  and  the  companies  of 
adventure  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  wars  between  France 
»nd  England.     Peter  fled  to  Guienne,  and  implored  the  aid 
of  the  Black  Prince,  promising  to  give  him  Biscay  in  case 
he  should  restore  him  to  his  throne.     The  British  prince  en- 
tered Spain,  recalled  to  his  standard  the  companies  of  adven-  1367 
tare,  defeated  Henry  at  the  battle  of  Navarrete,  and  took  du 
Guesclin  prisoner.     But  Peter's  ingratitude  causing  him  to 
retire  in  disgust,  Henry  again  appeared,  and  he  defeated  and  1369 
slew  with  his  own  hand  the  savage  tyrant. 

The  reigns  of  Henry  II.  and  his  two  successors,  John  L 
and   Henry  TIL   (1368 — 1406)  were  tranquil ;   and    these 
princes  merited  the  affection  of  the  people  by  their  observance 
of  the  laws,     John  II.  being  but  fourteen  months  old  at  his  1406 
accession,  the  government  was  wisely  administered  during 
his  minority  by  his  mother  and  his  uncle  Ferdinand.    On  his 
attaining  his  majority,  the  golden  period  terminated ;  the  re- 
mainder of  his  reign  was  a  series  of  conspiracies  and  civil  1454 
wars.     Henry  IV.,  son  of  John,  was  solemnly  and  unjustly 
deposed  by  a  party  of  his  factious  nobles,  who  set  up  his  1465 
orother  Alfonso  against  him,  and  a  civil  war  ensued.     These 
nobles  had  accused  Henry's  queen  of  adultery,  and  maintain- 
ed that  Joanna,  their  only  child,  was  illegitimate.     Accord- 
ingly, on  the  death  of  Alfonso,  his  sister  Isabel  was  regarded 
as  the  heiress.    She  agreed  to  a  treaty  with  Henry,  by  which  1409 
the  succession  was  secured  to  her ;  but  Henry  took  the  first 
opportunity  of  rescinding  the  agreement,  and  on  his  death 
the  parties  had  to  appeal  to  arms.     Isabel,  who  was  married  1474 
to  Ferdinand  infant  of  Aragon,  was  supported  by  that  power. 
Joanna  was  betrothed  to  Alfonso  king  of  Portugal,  and  he- 
mother  was  a  princess  of  that  family ;  she  was,  therefore, 
■upported  in  her  claim  by  the  strength  of  that  kingdom.  The 


372  niSTORT  OP  THK  WORLD.  PAftt  11, 

i    D. 

1476  king  of  Portugal,  however,  woa  defeated  at  Toro,  and  all 
Joanna's  partisans  gradually  submitted  to  Isabel. 

Aragon,  though  not  so  extensive  as  Castile,  equalled  it  in 
power.  Its  government  was  better,  its  sovereigns  wiser,  its 
trade  far  more  extensive.  The  tmlor  of  the  Cid  had  given 
it  Valencia ;  the  Balearic  isles  were  added  to  it ;  a  long  and 
sanguinary  contest  had,  at  the  commencement  of  the  four- 
teentli  century,  brought  Sardinia  under  its  dominion ;  and  in 
this  century  it  acquired  Naples  and  Sicily. 

1410.  On  the  death  of  Martin  king  of  Aragon,  the  succession  was 
disputed  by  five  competitors,  the  count  of  Urgal,  grandson 
of  James,  next  brother  to  Peter  FV. ;  the  duke  of  Gandia, 
grandson  of  James  II. ;  the  duke  of  Calabria,  son  of  Violante, 
youngest  daughter  of  John  I. ;  Frederic  count  of  Luna,  natu- 
ral son  of  the  younger  Martin  king  of  Sicily;  and  Ferdinand, 
infant  of  Castile,  son  of  the  late  king's  sister.  The  cortes  of 
Aragon,  Catalonia,  and  Valencia  named  nine  persons,  three 
of  each,  to  hear  and  decide  the  claims;  and,  after  solemn  de- 
liberation, the  crown  was  adjudged  to  Ferdinand  of  Castile. 

1416.  This  prince  was  succeeded  by  his  eon  Alfonso  V.,  who  was 
made  king  of  Naples,  where  he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his 
reign,  governing  Aragon  by  his  brother  and  successor  John 

M79.  II.  On  the  death  of  John,  the  sceptre  of  Aragon  passed  to 
his  son  Ferdinand,  who  was  married  to  Isabel  queen  of  Cas- 
tile, and  thus  the  two  monarchies  were  united  into  one  great 
kingdom,  never  again  to  be  divided.  Ferdinand  now  felt  him- 
self strong  enough  to  attack  Granada,  and  end  the  conflict 
which  had  lasted  for  eight  centuries.  The  war  commenced , 
civil  dissension  rent  the  Moorish  kingdom ;  a  party  aided  the 
Christian  invaders;  yet  the  conquest  of  Granada  cost  ten 
years  of  bloody  and  incessant  warfare.     At  length  it  surren- 

1492.  dered  (Jan.  2),  and  Spain,  in  fnll  strength  and  vigor,  was 
prepared  for  her  conflicts  with  France. 

The  little  kingdom  of  Navarre  passed  continually  by  fe- 
males to  the  French  houses  of  Bigorre,  Champagne,  Evreux, 
Foix,  and  Albret.  But  the  kings  of  Aragon  had  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  greater  part  of  it 

Portugal. 

Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  had  obliged  Alfonso,  the  Restaurador 
ot  Portugal,  to  swear  that,  for  his  conquest  of  Algarve,  he 
279.  would  attend  him  in  his  wars  with  fifty  lances.  Diniz,  the 
able  successor  of  the  effeminate  Sancho,  prevailed  on  the 
king  of  Castile  to  abolish  this  mark  of  the  dependence  of  Por- 
tugal. 
1367.      Pedro,  the  grandson  of  Diniz,  was  an  able,  just,  and  vigor 


CHAP.  VII.         DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  373 

0U8  prince :  he  contended  with  gpirit  against  thie  power  of  the 
church,  which  was  excessive  in  Portu^,  and  held  it  in  check. 
Ferdinand,  his  feeble  son,  left  an  only  daughter,  married  to 
John  king  of  Castile,  and  Portugal  was  in  imminent  danger  a.  n 
of  losing  her  independence.  138J 

A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  queen-dowager,  who 
was  regent,  and  her  partisans :  John,  a  natural  son  of  king 
Pedro,  and  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Avis,  was  at  the 
head  of  it.  The  conspirators  rushed  into  the  castle  where 
the  queen  resided,  and  Ruy  Pereira  slew  before  her  eyes  her 
favorite  count  Ourem.  The  people  rose ;  the  bishop  of  Lisbon 
was  flung  from  the  tower  of  his  cathedral ;  the  queen  fled  to 
Castile ;  the  master  of  Avis  was  appointed  regent  The  king 
of  Castile  (John  I.)  entered  Portugal  with  an  army.  Most 
of  the  nobles  were  on  his  side :  the  commons  were  for  Don 
John,  and  liberty.  At  the  battle  of  Aljubarrota,  7000  Portu-  1386 
guese  defeated  more  than  four  times  their  number  of  Caa- 
tihans,  and  the  master  of  Avis  was  proclaimed  king  of  Por- 
tugal. His  reign  of  forty-eight  years  was  the  most  brilliant 
period  Portugal  had  yet  seen.  The  Portuguese  chivalry  1414 
crossed  the  strait,  and  conquered  Ceuta  from  the  Moors.  Dis- 
covery was  prosecuted  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  through  the 
generous  efforts  of  his  son  Don  Henry,  and  Madeira  and  the 
Azores  were  added  to  his  dominions.  While  his  grandson  int. 
Alfonso  V.  was  carrying  on  war  with  success  against  the 
Moors  of  Fez,  adventurous  mariners  had  passed  the  line,  set- 
tled on  the  Gold  Coast,  and  discovered  Congo.  The  Cape  of 
Grood  Hope  was  doubled  by  Diaz. 

Discovery  of  America. 

The  progress  of  the  Portuguese  along  the  coast  of  Aftica, 
the  discovery  of  new  nations,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  in- 
correctness of  the  ideas  of  the  ancients  respecting  geo^^^ 
phy,  aided  by  the  compass,  and  the  courage  and  skill  acquired 
by  navigating  the  stormy  seas  of  the  north,  had  prepared  men 
for  bold  and  distant  voyages.  The  great  problem  was,  the 
passage  by  sea  to  India :  this  the  Portuguese  sought  by  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa.  Christopher  Columbus,  a  Genoese, 
a  man  of  great  naval  skill  and  courage,  by  reflecting  on  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth,  now  known  to  be  globular,  had  con- 
jectured that,  by  sailing  westwards,  a  ship  might,  after  passing 
over  a  moderate  space  of  sea,  arrive  at  the  coast  of  India. 
Pieces  of  carved  wood,  natural  productions,  and  even  the 
bodies  of  men  had  been  thrown  ashore  in  different  places  by 
the  waves  running  from  the  west :  various  traditions  were 
current  of  a  land  to  the  wost  linving  been  formerly  visited 
82 


374  HISTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  FART  n, 

All  these  circumstances  combined,  convinced  Columbus  that, 
by  sailing  due-yvest,  a  ship  must,  within  a  moderate  space  of 
time,  reach  a  country  which,  he  was  firmly  persuaded,  must 
De  India.  Under  this  impression,  he  made,  as  he  thought  him- 
self bound  to  do,  the  first  proposal  of  attempting  the  discovery 
to  his  native  city  Genoa.  Meeting  with  no  encouragement 
there,  he  applied  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  in  whose  capital  he 
resided ;  but  Don  John  was  too  firmly  bent  on  the  course 
which  the  Portuguese  had  been  so  long  pursuing  to  hearken 
to  him.  Columbus  now  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to 
Henry  VII.  of  England :  he  went  in  person  to  Ferdinand  and 
iBabel  of  Spain.  Bartholomew  was  taken  by  pirates,  and  did 
not  reach  England  for  a  long  time,  by  which  means  that  coun 
try  probably  lost  the  honor  of  the  future  discovery.  Christo- 
pher, after  long  soliciting  at  the  court  of  Castile,  at  lengtli 
obtained  a  small  squadron  from  Isabel,  elated  with  the  recent 

^_  J)  conquest  of  Granada. 

I49i  With  three  small  vessels,  carrying  but  90  men,  Columbus 
sailed  from  the  port  of  Palos  on  the  3d  Aug.  1492.  He  steered 
westwards,  and  proceeded  a  long  way  without  meeting  any 
signs  of  land :  his  crews  began  to  grow  terrified  and  muti- 
nous :  Columbus  soothed  and  pacified  them.  At  length,  one 
morning  (Oct.  12),  the  coast  and  woods  of  St.  Salvador,  one 
of  the  Bahamas,  rose  before  them, — and  the  New  World  was 
discovered.  Sailing  farther  on,  they  arrived  at  Cuba  and  His- 
paniola,  or  St.  Domingo;  and  Columbus  returning  to  Spain 
with  intelligence  of  his  discoveries,  all  Europe  was  filled  with 
wonder  and  conjectures.  The  new  country  was  named  West- 
India,  so  convinced  were  men  that  it  could  be  no  other  than 
a  part  of  India,  of  which  they  had  such  indistinct  concep- 

1493.  tions.     The  next  year  Columbus  discovered  Puerto  Rico, 

1498.  Guadaloupe,  and  Jamaica.  In  his  third  voyage  he  discovered 
Trinidad,  and  a  part  of  South  America,  which  he  knew  not 
to  be  a  continent.  The  ungrateful  return  made  to  the  ser- 
vices of  this  great  man,  are  too  well  known,  and  too  conso- 
nant to  the  usual  practices  of  courts,  to  need  mention.     He 

1506.  died  four  years  after  his  fourth  and  last  voyage,  poor  and 
neglected,  at  Valladolid. 

While  Columbus  was  prosecuting  hia  discoveries  to  the 
west,  the  court  of  Portugal,  having  now  ascertained  Africa 
to  be  circumnavigable,  had  sent  a  fleet  under  the  command 
of  Vasco  da  Gama,  round  Africa,  in  quest  of  India.  He  sailed 
from  the  Tagus  on  the  9th  of  July,  1497,  and  on  the  18th 
May,  1498,  be  reached  the  port  of  Calicut*  on  the  westena 
eooat  of  India. 


Geoboians  of  the  Hkiohts  or  Teflis. 


CHAP.  Vn.         DECLINE  OP  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  3*?7 

The  middle  ages  here  terminate.  They  began  in  ignorance, 
anarchy,  and  confusion:  knowledge  and  order  now  regain 
their  dominion.  The  discordant  elements  of  theocracy,  mon- 
archy, feudalism,  and  democracy,  which  had  been  in  ceaseless 
conflict  during  this  period,  have  so  modified  one  another,  as 
to  make  the  fit  state  of  transition  to  the  blended  form  which 
characterizes  that  which  follows. 


<i2* 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD. 


PART  III. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

I 

CHAP.  L 

VIEW  OF  THE  STATE  OF  EUROPE. 

Introduction. 


At  the  commencement  of  the  middle  ages  the  great  em- 
pire of  Rome  was  fallen  to  pieces  from  internal  corruption 
and  decay :  the  stream  of  hardy  population  which  poured 
down  from  the  north  had  burst  all  the  opposing  mounds  and 
dikes,  and  overflowed  the  whole  of  the  western  empire. 
Taste  and  learning,  long  declining,  were  almost  extinct ;  t  le 
Christian  religion,  now  that  of  all  parts  of  the  empire,  t  as 
corrupted  and  debased ;  and  in  that  state  it  was  embraced  by 
the  rude  conquerors,  and  farther  degraded  by  the  admixl  ire 
of  their  barbarous  tenets  and  practices.  The  clergy  acqu  red 
from  the  superstitious  fears  of  the  people  wealth,  influe^ice, 
and  power;  they  ruled  the  laity  with  despotic  sway,  and 
bishops  made  kings  tremble  on  their  thrones :  the  pop-,  as 
head  of  the  church,  sought  to  draw  all  this  power  to  himself, 
and  then  to  make  it  a  source  of  emolument.  The  papal  do- 
minion had  finally  attained  a  height  unparalleled  in  the  history 
of  man ;  but,  like  every  other  empire,  its  ascent  only  led  to  its 
descent.  The  extravagance  of  the  papal  pretensions  b  came 
apparent  when  learning  began  to  be  cultivated,  and  its  g/adual 
decline  has  marked  the  last  period  of  those  ages. 

One  great  empire  arose  in  Europe  after  the  fall  o^  Rome ; 
but  it  fell  to  pieces  when  the  vigorous  mind  which  hal'  jrected 
it  was  gone.  Europe  was  divided  into  small  states,  nd  war, 
internal  and  external,  raged  without  ceasing ;  a  haughty  in- 
dependent nobility  insulted  kings,  and  tyrannized  over  the 
people.  The  barbarians  of  the  North  and  the  East,  and  the  en- 
thusiastic warriors  of  the  Koran,  overran,  pillaged,  and  de- 
stroyed the  fairest  regions  of  the  West.  The  intercourse  of 
nations,  except  in  war,  was  small ;  trade  and  commerce  hardly 
existed ;  the  merchant  was  subject  to  be  plundered  openly  by 
878 


CHAP,  t  VIEW  OP  THE  STA'l  E  OP  EUROrR  379 

the  stranger-lord,  and  to  be  pillaged  by  the  arbitrary  taxation 
of  his  own. 

Gradually  the  night  was  seen  to  pass  away ;  monarcne  be 
gan  to  extend  their  power,  and  to  perceive  that  it  was  their 
true  interest  to  protect  the  people  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
nobles,  and  to  bring  these  last  under  obedience ;  the  church 
used  her  extensive  power  for  the  same  purpose ;  the  people 
gradually  acquired  wealth;  their  towns  were  secured  by 
charters  and  immunities  granted  by  the  crown  or  the  feudal 
lord,  and  where  the  crown  was  feeble,  voluntary  associations 
secured  them  from  the  rapacity  of  the  nobles.  The  latter  ac- 
quired a  relish  for  luxury :  to  obtain  money,  they  alienated  or 
let  their  lands,  and  soon  felt  that  they  had  transformed  their 
obedient  retainers  into  sturdy  independent  yeomen  and 
citizens. 

The  lamp  of  learning  was  relumed ;  the  study  of  the  scho- 
lastic theology  and  philosophy,  and  of  the  Roman  law,  sharp- 
ened men's  intellects ;  travels  into  the  East  enlarged  their 
knowledge  of  the  earth ;  the  use  of  the  mariner's  compass 
emboldened  their  navigation ;  gunpowder  changed  the  face 
of  war ;  paper,  and  at  length  tlie  art  of  printing,  gave  a  more 
rapid  diffusion  to  knowledge ;  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
scattered  the  learning  of  the  Greeks  over  the  West ;  schools 
and  universities  were  numerous ;  men  were  become  eager 
for  knowledge ;  classical  learning  was,  in  Italy,  cultivated 
with  ardor,  and  a  strong  feeling  of  admiration  for  the  institu- 
tions and  philosophy  of  antiquity  excited ;  the  discourses  and 
writings  of  Wickliffe,  Huss,  and  their  disciples  awakened  be- 
yond the  Alps  attention  to  the  important  topics  of  religion ; 
the  discovery  of  India  and  the  New  World  filled  men's  minds 
with  vague  aspirations  after  adventure,  conquest,  wealth,  and 
knowledge.     A  universal  fermentation  was  going  on. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  European  mind,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  modem  history.  The  political  condition  of 
Europe  was  chiefly  that  of  extensive  monarchies,  internally 
tranquil,  and  ready  to  turn  their  entire  forces  against  each 
other.  We  will  commence  this  part  by  a  view  of  their  re- 
spective conditions. 

England. 

The  wars  of  the  Roses  had  greatly  thinned  the  English 
nobility  and  gentry :  they  were  weary  of  civil  conflict,  and 
quietly  submitted  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of  Henry  VII.  All  the 
barriers  of  liberty  erected  under  the  Plantagenets  were 
thrown  down,  and  England  became  in  this,  and  still  more  in 
the  following  reign,   nearly  an  absolute  monarchy.     The 


380  mSTOBY  OF  THB  WORLD.        PART  HI. 

daughters  of  Henry  VII.  were  married,  one  to  Louis  XII. 

king  of  France,  the  other  to  the  king  of  Scotland.  Wales 
^  D  was  incorporated  with  England ;  over  Ireland  she  held  a  du- 
1509.  bious  dominion.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  son  of  the  same 

name. 

France. 

All  the  great  fiefs  had  been  reunited  to  the  crown.  Flushed 
with  power,  her  sovereign  Charles  VIII.  now,  at  the  invitation 
of  Sforza  duke  of  Milan,  put  forth  his  claims  to  the  kingdom 
49.\  of  Naples.  At  the  head  of  20,000  French,  and  6000  Swiss, 
he  speedily  achieved  the  conquest  of  it.  But  the  discontent 
of  the  Neapolitans,  and  the  league  of  the  pope,  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Castile,  the  Venetians, 
and  the  duke  of  Milan,  forced  Charles  to  leave  that  kingdom. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Tanaro,  in  the  Parmesan,  the  allied  forces 
waited  for  the  enfeebled  French  army  as  it  emerged  from  the 
passes  of  the  Apennines.  The  French,  with  a  loss  of  200 
men,  routed  three  times  their  number,  leaving  3000  of  them 
on  the  plain. 
1498.  Louis  XII.,  named  the  Father  of  his  People,  asserted  hia 
claim  to  Milan  and  to  Naples :  he  conquered  them  both,  but 
waa  unable  to  retain  them. 

Germany. 

1493.  Maximilian  succeeded  his  father  Frederic  in  the  empire. 
By  marriage  with  the  heiress  of  Burgundy  he  got  all  the  pos- 
sessions of  that  house ;  and  on  the  death  of  his  cousm  Sigis- 
mund  archduke  of  Austria,  the  Austrian  dominions  fell  to 
him.  The  diet  of  Worms,  held  during  the  reign  of  this 
emperor,  established  a  perpetual  public  peace  in  Germany, 
by  adopting  vigorous  measures  for  the  suppression  of  private 
warfare,  and  by  providing  a  paramount  court  of  justice — the 
Imperial  Chamber. 

Russia,  Poland,  Scandinavia. 

After  casting  off  the  yoke  of  the  Tatars,  the  Russian  princes 
exerted  themselves  to  establish  trade  and  communication 
15(1.5.  with  Western  Europe :  Vasilius  kept  up  a  good  understand- 
ing with  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  granted  great  privi- 
leges to  the  Hanse  towns. 

The  Poles  and  Russians  now  engaged  in  war  with  each 
615.  other,  and  the  former  lost  Smolensko  and  Pleskov. 

In  Scandinavia  the  contest  for  the  independence  of  Sweden 
was  prosecuted.  The  Russian  tsar  entered  into  a  treaty  of 
partition  against  Sweden,  with  Christian  II.  of  Denmark 


CHAP.  I.  VIEW  OF  THE  STATE  OF  EUROfE  383 

Switzerland  and  Savoy. 

r/)ui3  XL,  when  dauphin,  had  led  a  body  of  troops  into  a.  rx 
Switzerland,  where  the  reception  he  met  with,  combined  1444 
with  the  great  victories  of  the  Swiss  over  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, inspired  him  with  such  a  respect  for  them,  that  he  all 
his  life  courted  their  alliance.     His  policy  was  followed  by 
his  successors.     The   Swiss  now  began  to  hire  out  their 
troops,  and  thoy  plnyed  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  wars  of  Italy. 
An  attempt  was  made  by  the  emperor  Maximilian  to  revive 
the  supremacy  of  t!ie  empire  over  the  Swiss,  and  brmg  them 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  imjterial  chamber;  but  m  the 
war  that  ensued  their  success  was  decisive,  and  an  honorable  J400 
peace  was  made  with  them. 

Savoy  had  been  latterly  enfeebled  by  minorities.  Its  dukes 
were  rather  good  than  great  princes. 

Italy. 

Philip,  the  last  of  the  vile  race  of  the  Visconti,  dukes  of  1447 
Milan,  left  only  an  illegitimate  daughter,  married  to  Fran- 
cesco  Sforza,  the  great  condottiere   who  commanded   the 
troops  of  the  duchy.     Sforza  made  himself  duke,  and  gov-  14.50 
emed  with  prudence  and  justice.  His  son  Galeazzo  was  mur- 
dered ;  but  the  widow.  Bona  of  Savoy,  maintained  the  duchy  1478 
for  her  son  John  Galeazzo.     Lodovico  Moro,  brother  of  the 
murdered  prince,  destroyed  his  nephew  by  a  slow  poison,  l'19-l 
Fearing  the  king  of  Naples,  whose  daughter  had  been  mar- 
ried to  John  Galeazzo,  he  excited  Charles  VIII.  of  France  to 
assert  his  claims,  derived  from  the  house  of  Anjou,  to  Naples, 
promising  him  the  aid  of  himself  and  other  Italian  powers. 
But   Sforza  afterwards  joined    the   league   formed   against 
Charles;  and  Ix)uis  XII.  advanced  his  claims  to  the  Milanese, 
derived  from  his  grandmother  Valentina  Visconti.     He  con-  l.w 
quered  and  held  the  duchy  twelve  years. 

The  house  of  Este  governed  as  vassals  of  the  empire,  or 
the  church,  with  ducal  title,  Ferrara,  Modena,  and  Reggio; 
the  Gonzaga  family  ruled  at  Mantua,  the  Pico  at  Mirandola, 
the  Maiaspina  at  Ma.ssa,  the  Griinaldi  at  Monaco. 

At  .Rome,  after  some  excellent,  some  indifferent  popes,  the 
papal  chair  was  tilled  by  Alexander  VI.,  of  the  Spanish  house  H'.i-j 
of  Borgia,  a. monster  who  might  vie  in  vice  with  the  Ncros 
and  Caligulas  of  ancient  Rome.  His  only  plan  of  politics 
was  to  secure  a  principality  in  Ilaly  flir  his  enterprising  son, 
CoBsar  Borgia;  and  neitiier  father  nor  son  was  deficient  'n 
the  courage  and  iniquity  requisite  for  tlie  attainment  of  tha* 
28 


884  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PAIIT  Til 

object.     Alexander  was  succeeded  by  the  warlike  Julius  II. 
who  added  Bologna  to  the  papal  states. 

Venice  had  acquired  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus :  she  was  now 
at  the  zenith  of  her  power ;  she  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade 
with  the  East,  and  was  highly  favored  by  the  Mameluke  sul- 
tans ;  she  was  rich,  and  her  army  was  the  best  in  Italy.  The 
discovery  of  the  route  to  India  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Ottomans,  gave  her  prosperity  ita 
death-blow. 

At  Florence  the  wealthy  and  magnificent  family  of  the 
Medici  had  been  gradually  increasing  in  influence.  Cosimo 
de'  Medici,  called  the  Father  of  his  Country,  exerted  a  com- 
manding influence  in  the  state.  After  the  death  of  his  son 
Piero,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  his  grandsons,  and  Ju- 
lian was  murdered,  but  Lorenzo  escaped.  The  latter  was 
afterwards  restored  to  his  country,  and  completed  the  destruc- 
tion of  its  liberties.  The  independence  of  Florence,  as  it 
was  to  fall,  could  not  fall  by  a  nobler  hand.  Lorenzo's  patron- 
A.  D.  age  of  literature  and  the  arts  is  known  to  every  one.  His 
1492.  death  was  regarded  as  an  event  fatal  to  all  Italy. 

Louis  XII.  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain  having  entered  into  c 
treaty^  for  the  conquest  and  partition  of  Naples,  Frederic,  the 
king  of  that  country,  could  not  resist  such  formidable  oppo- 
nents. Naples  was  speedily  conquered.  The  French  army 
was  enfeebled  by  the  climate  and  disease,  and  disliked  by  the 
people.  The  wily  Ferdinand  and  his  general,  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova,  the  Great  Captain,  took  advantage  of  these  circum- 
Btances  to  drive  the  French  a  second  time  out  of  that  kingdom. 

The  League  of  Cambray. 

'509.  Louis  Xn.,  Maximilian,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  pope  Julius 
II.  entered  at  Cambray  into  a  league  against  the  Venetians. 
The  republic  opposed  to  them  firmness  in  her  senate,  skill 
and  courage  in  her  generals,  fidelity  in  her  subjects.  Jealousy 
soon  broke  out  among  the  confederates,  and  the  emperor,  the 
pope,  the  king  of  Spain  united  with  the  Swiss  and  the  Vene- 
tians to  drive  the  French  out  of  Italy.  Louis  was  forced  to 
give  way  :  the  victory  of  the  Swiss  at  Novara  was  decisive, 

•512.  Maximilian,  the  son  of  Lodovico  Sforza,  was  restored  to  the 
dukedom  of  Milan. 

Spain  and  Portugal. 

477.  Before  the  taking  of  Granada  the  execrable  tribunal  of  the 
inquisition  had  been  planned  by  the  minister  Mendoza,  and  by 
Salez  bishop  of  Cadiz,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
people,  the  clergy,  and  even  at  first  of  the  pope,  introduced 


CHAP.  I.     VIEW  OF  THE  STATE  OF  EUROPE.         385 

intx)  Caatile.  It  was  directed  against  the  Jews ;  Torquemada, 
a  Dominican,  was  the  first  great  inquisitor ;  and  the  tribunal,  ^  , 
in  its  first  year,  committed  2000  persons  to  the  flames.  Great  1481 
opposition  waa  made  to  it  in  Aragon;  but  it  was  introduced 
there  by  force  of  orma  Leon,  Valencia,  and  Sicily  resisted 
also,  but  with  na  little  success.  On  the  reduction  of  Granada, 
liberty  of  conscience  had  been  secured  to  the  Moors ;  but  a 
council,  presided  over  by  the  archbishops  of  Granada  and  To- 
ledo, decided  that  Ferdinand  and  Isabel  were  not  bound  to 
keep  faith  with  the  infidels,  and  the  Moors  were  brought 
within  this  sanguinary  jurisdiction.  The  erection  of  this  ini- 
quitous tribunal,  and  its  close  alliance  with  the  throne,  have 
been  the  main  cause  of  the  future  decline  of  Spain,  and  of 
her  being  at  the  present  moment  the  most  degraded  of  na- 
tions. 

Portugal  was  still  in  her  golden  age  xmder  Don  Manuel, 
commencing  her  guilty  but  brilliant  career  in  Asia, 

Turkey. 

Mohammed  11.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Bayezeed,  a  prmce 
of  mild,  peaceable  temper.  After  a  reign  of  thirty  years  he 
was  forced  to  resign  his  throne  to  his  son  Selim,  one  of  the  1512 
greatest  and  most  cruel  of  the  Ottoman  monarchs.  Selim 
commenced  his  reign  by  the  murder  of  his  brothers  and 
nephews,  and  the  massacre  of  40,000  Sheeahs,  or  dissenters 
from  the  orthotlox  fiiith,  and  he  engaged  in  war  with  and  de- 
feated, at  Chaldiran  near  Tebreez,  shah  Ismail,  the  founder 
of  the  Sufl&vee  dynasty  in  Persia.  By  force  and  negotiation 
he  made  himself  master  of  Koordistan  and  Mesopotamia,  As 
Kansoo  Ghawree,  the  Mameluke  sultan  of  Egypt,  was  the 
ally  of  Ismail,  war  against  him  was  resolved  on  by  Selim. 
The  Mameluke  advanced  at  the  head  of  his  army  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  Syria,  and  on  the  mead  of  Dabeek,  not  far  from 
Aleppo,  the  hostile  sultans  engaged.  The  quantity  of  the  1516 
Turkish  artillery,  and  the  inactivity  of  the  Jelban  (the  second 
order  of  Egyptian  troops),  gave  an  easy  victory  to  Selim. 
Ghawree,  an  old  man  of  eighty  years,  died  at  a  pool  in  the 
flight,  and  all  Syria  submitted.  Peace  was  offered  to  and  re- 
jected by  the  new  sultan,  Toomawn  Beg.  Selim  crossed  the 
desert,  and  entered  Egypt.  The  treachery  of  Ghazalce,  one 
of  Toomawn's  generals,  and  the  superiority  of  his  artillery, 
gave  Selim  another  victory  at  Ridania,  near  Cairo,  which 
city  was  taken,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  and  50,000  of  its 
inhabitants  barbarously  massacred.  Aft«r  bravely  but  vainly 
fighting  for  his  empire,  the  "valiant,  chivalrous,  humane,  up- 
right" Toomawn  Beg  was  taken,  and,  at  the  suggestion*  rf 
83 


386  msTOET  OF  the  world.  part  in. 

A.  D.  the  traitors  Ghazalee  and  Khair  Beg,  hanged  at  one  of  the 

?6)7.  gates  of  Cairo ;  and  Egypt  was  reduced  to  a  province.     The 

last  khalif  of  the  house  of  Abbas  was  sent  to  Constantinople, 

but  he  died  on  the  way.     The  Ottoman  sultans  have  ever 

1520.  since  taken  that  sacred  title.     Selim  died,  after  a  reign  of 

eight  years. 

Persia. 

During  this  period  Persia  witnessed  a  not  unfrequent  oc- 
currence in  the  Mohammedan  world — the  erection  of  empire 
on  the  basis  of  religion.  A  family  of  sheikhs  had  long  dwelt 
at  Erdebil  in  that  country.  They  passed  their  lives  in  the 
practice  of  that  mystic  contemplation  called  SoofFeeism,  and 
derived  their  name  of  Suffavee  from  Suffee-ed-deen,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  their  ancestors,  who  died  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  14th  century.  At  the  close  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, Jooneid,  one  of  them,  began  to  meddle  in  politics,  and 
he  was  driven  from  Erdebil  by  Jehan  Shah,  the  descendant 
of  Chingis,  and  then  prince  of  the  Black  Wether.  He  took 
refiige  with  Uzun  Hassan,  the  powerful  chief  of  the  White 
Wether,  who  gave  him  his  sister  in  marriage.  Under  pre- 
text of  leading  his  followers  against  the  infidel  Georgians,  he 
ravaged  the  coimtry  of  the  prince  of  Shirwan,  against  whom 
he  fell  in  battle.  His  son  Haider  trod  in  his  steps.  He  or- 
ganized his  followers,  and  made  them  wear  for  distinction  red 
caps,  whence  they,  and  afterwards  all  the  Persians,  were 
called  by  the  Turks,  in  derision,  Kuzzil  Bashes  (Red-heads). 
He  also  attacked  the  prince  of  Shirwan  and  besieged  him  in 
his  castle  of  Gulistan ;  but  he  fell  in  a  conflict  with  the  troops 
of  Yacoob,  prince  of  the  Black  Wether,  who  came  to  the  re- 

1488.  lief  of  the  besieged.  His  two  sons  were  taken  and  confined ; 
the  Yacoob's  successor  gave  them  liberty.  The  eldest,  re- 
belling, was  slam ;  the  younger,  Ismael,  then  but  seven  years 
old,  was  saved  by  the  prince  of  Ghilan. 

In  the  15th  year  of  his  age,  Ismail,  at  the  head  of  7000  of 
his  adherents,  made  war  on  the  prince  of  Shirwan,  defeated 
him,  and  fixed  his  throne  at  Tebreez,  the  capital  of  Aderbi- 

1501.  Jan.  He  next  ravaged  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  peace- 
ful Bayezeed  II.  The  princes  of  the  Black  and  the  White 
Wether,  and  the  shah  of  Mazenderan,  were  all  vanquished 
by  him.  All  the  land  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Persian  gulf 
obeyed  him :  he  extended  his  conquests  beyond  the  Oxus,  and 
defeated  the  great  khan  of  the  Usbega  His  power  was  now 
at  its  zenith :  he  engaged  in  war  witn  Selim  I.,  under  pretext 
of  supporting  the  claims  of  Selim's  nephews,  and  avenging 
the  massacre  of  40.000  Sheahs,  slaughtered  by  order  of  the 


1 


OHARLBS      V 


5HAP.  U.  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  389 

Sultan.  T/ie  Ottomans  entered  the  Persian  dominions :  oh 
the  plains  of  Chaldiran,  on  the  road  to  Tebreez,  the  armies  of  a.  d 
Ismail  and  Selim,  each  of  120,000  in  number,  encountered :  1514. 
victory  declared  in  favor  of  the  Turkish  artillery,  and  Te- 
breez w^as  taken  and  plundered.  Want  of  supplies  forced 
Selim  to  retreat,  and  Ismael  subdued  Georgia.  He  died 
shortly  afterwards,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Tamasp.      1523 


CHAP.  II. 

TIMES    OF    CHARLES   V. 

Accession  of  Charles  V. 

In  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  largest 
empire  that  Europe  has  seen  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
was  ruled  over  by  Charles,  son  of  Philip,  archduke  of  Aus- 
tria, and  Joanna,  heiress  of  Ferdinand  and  kabel  of  Spain. 
From  his  grandmother  he  inlierited  the  rich  dominions  of  the 
house  of  Burgundy  in  the  Low  Countries ;  the  deatli  of  Fer- 
dinand gave  him  Spain,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  the  New  World. 
On  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  Maximilian,  he  got  the  pos- 1519 
sessions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and  he  and  Francis,  king  of 
France,  becoming  candidates  for  the  imperial  dignity,  the 
majority  of  the  electors  declared  for  Charlea 

The  Turks,  under  the  warlike  Selim  I.,  were  now  the 
enemy  dreaded  by  Europe ;  and  the  chief  question  with  the 
electors  had  been,  which  of  the  rival  monarchs  would  be  best 
calculated  to  defend  the  empire  against  them :  the  circum- 
stance of  Charles's  Austrian  dominions  had  turned  the  beam 
in  his  fevor.  The  only  other  power  of  consequence  in  Europe 
was  England,  now  governed  by  the  vain,  capricious,  haughty 
Henry  VIIL,  but  whose  size  and  situation  prevented  her 
having  any  idea  of  extensive  conquest.  Charles,  in  the  views 
of  universal  empire  which  he  early  conceived,  had,  therefore, 
apparently  only  Francis  to  impede  him ;  but  his  own  charac- 
ter, and  the  strength  and  resources  of  his  kingdom,  gave  the 
latter  such  advantages,  that  only  ambition  could  have  blinded 
the  emperor  to  the  plain  fact,  that  France  was  then,  as  ever, 
unconquerable.  But  there  was  just  at  this  period  a  moral 
power  arismg,  more  effectual  to  check  Uie  ambition  of  fhe 
emperor  than  even. the  chivalry  of  France.  The  great  reform- 
ation of  religion  had  now  commenced. 
33* 


890  HI8T0BT  or  THS  WOBLD.  PABT  m 

The  Reformation. 

The  eyes  of  men  had  been  gradually  opened  to  the  frauds 
and  corruptions  of  the  Romish  church,  and  the  rapacity  of  the 
court  of  Rome  had  alienated  the  minds  of  princes  and  people. 
The  awakened  love  of  knowledge  led  men  to  aspire  after 
freedom  of  thought,  and  to  feel  heavy  the  yoke  which  the 
church  of  Rome,  though  never  less  mtolerant  or  arbitrary 
imposed  in  all  matters  relating  to  religious  doctrine.  Menta 
emancipation  was  panted  after.  A  proper  occasion  and  a  bold 
leader  were  all  that  were  wanting  to  excite  the  flames  of 
spiritual  rebellion.  The  occasion  was  soon  presented,  and 
the  leader  appeared. 

Leo  X.,  of  the  family  of  the  Medici,  now  filled  the  papal 
chair.  Like  his  family,  he  was  devoted  to  literature  and 
pleasure,  and  tasteful  and  magnificent  in  his  ideas  and  ac- 
tions. It  is  not  improbable  that,  as  he  is  charged,  he  re- 
garded the  religion  of  which  he  was  the  head  as  merely  a 
gainful  fable ;  and  as  he  was  now  engaged  in  rearing  that 
splendid  temple,  the  glory  of  modern  Rome,  he  found  it  need- 
ful to  put  in  practice  every  mode  of  raising  money  of  which 
the  papal  chancery  could  furnish  a  precedent  The  sale  of 
indulgences  appearing  most  likely  to  bring  in  a  large  supply, 
A.  D.  they  were  issued  in  great  quantities,  and  the  disposal  of  them 
1518  committed  to  the  most  active  agents.  The  Dominicans  sold 
in  Germany.  The  scandalous  language  and  conduct  of  some 
of  these  men  aroused  the  indignation  of  Dr.  Martin  Luther, 
an  Augustinian,  and  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
of  Wittenburg,  in  Saxony.  He  wrote  and  preached  against 
indulgences;  he  was  listened  to  with  admiration :  opposition 
excited  him ;  he  had,  though  not  profoundly  learned,  a  strong 
sense  of  truth,  and  a  vigorous  imagination ;  his  eloquence  vvas 
popular,  his  command  of  his  native  tongue  great ;  his  soul  was 
full  of  love  to  his  country  and  mankind,  and  his  courage  in 
maintaining  what  he  held  to  be  true,  invincible.  He  read, 
he  meditated,  he  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  Scripture,  and 
he  felt  how  contrary  to  it  were  the  practices  and  the  claims 
of  the  church  of  Rome.  He  fearlessly  expressed  what  he 
honestly  thought ;  he  was  supported  by  his  university  and  his 
prince,  the  elector  of  Saxony ;  he  was  summoned  to  Rome ; 
but,  at  the  request  of  the  elector,  cardinal  Cajetan  was  sent 
to  Germany,  and  Luther  appeared  and  defended  his  opiniona 
before  the  diet  at  Augsburg.  When  Charles  obtained  the 
empire,  he  was  again  summoned,  and  appeared  before  the  diet 
»5«l.  at  Worms.     He  was  dismissed ;  and,  under  the  protection  of 


CHAP.  II.  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  391 

the  elector  of  Saxony,  he  Btill  contmued  to  propagate  his 
opinions  through  the  north  of  Germany, 

In  Switzerland,  Ulric  Zuinglius,  a  priest  at  Zurich,  had,  a  d. 
even  earlier  than  Luther,  opposed  the  sale  of  indulgences  by  '^l^ 
the  Franciscans  in  that  country.  Not  confining  themselves 
to  religious  abuses,  Zuinglius  and  his  friends  sought  to  unite 
religion  with  civil  polity,  and  to  preserve  and  exalt  the  tone 
of  republican  virtue  and  freedom.  The  opinions  of  tlie  re- 
formers rapidly  spread  into  France,  the  Low  Countries,  and 
England,  already  prepared  for  them  by  Wickliffe  and  his  dis- 
ciples. 

Wars  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 

Francis,  count  of  Angoul^me,  on  succeeding  his  father-in-  1513 
law,  the  late  king  Louis  XII.,  was  eager  to  signalize  himself 
in  the  eyes  of  the  world.  He  turned  his  views  towards  Italy, 
and  resolved  to  recover  Milan.  The  Swiss  guarded  the  passes 
of  the  Alps  against  him:  on  hearing  of  his  having  entered 
boldly  into  Piedmont,  they  descended,  and  encountered  the 
arms  of  France  in  the  plain ;  and  modern  times  have  wit- 
nessed few  such  obstinate  conflicts  as  that  which  ensued  on 
the  field  of  Marignano,  near  Milan.  The  battle  lasted  two 
days,  and  the  Swiss  did  not  retire  till  one-half  of  their  num- 
ber was  slain.  All  the  Milanese  now  surrendered ;  Sforza 
resigned  his  claim  for  a  pension,  and  Francis  returned  home,  1516 
leaving  Charles  duke  of  Bourbon  governor.  The  emperor 
Maximilian  invaded  Italy,  but  was  repulsed,  and  he  then  made 
peace  with  France  and  Venice. 

The  competition  for  the  empire  caused  ill-will  between 
Charles  and  Francis:  each  sought  to  gain  Henry  VIII.  and 
his  minister  Wolsey.  The  art  of  the  emperor  prevailed  over 
the  frankness  and  generosity  of  the  French  king. 

The  Spaniards  were  in  rebellion  ;  Francis  seized  the  op- 
portunity of  recovering  for  John  d'Albret,  Navarre,  which 
Ferdinand  had  unjustly  seized.  A  French  army  entered  and 
conquered  it;  but,  venturing  to  advance  into  Spain,  it  was 
defeated,  and  Navarre  recovered.  Francis  invaded  the  Low 
Countries  without  advantage.  A  league  was  now  formed, 
between  the  pope,  Henry  VIII.,  and  Charles,  against  the 
king  of  France.  The  Milanese,  disgusted  with  the  insolence 
and  exactions  of  the  French,  resolved  to  expel  them,  and  put 
themselves  u"der  Francis  Sforza,  brother  to  tlieir  late  duke. 
The  pope  hired  Swiss,  and  formed  an  army  under  Prosper 
Colonna  to  assist  them.  The  French  were  defeated ;  Lau 
tree,  their  commander,  fled  to  Venice,  and  they  loet  every 
thing  but  Cremona,  the  castle  of  Milan,  and  a  few  otlier 


A.  D. 


392  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III, 

places.    Joy  at  this  success  is  said  to  have  terminated  the  life 

fs^  of  Leo  X. 

Francis  sent  money  and  10,000  Swiss  to  Lautrec,  who  in- 
vaded the  Milanese,  but  was  defeated  at  Bicocca.  Genoa, 
which  was  under  the  protection  of  France,  was  taken  by  Co- 
lonna,  and  the  French  now  retained  only  Cremona.  The 
523.  new  pope,  Adrian  VI.,  the  Venetians,  the  Florentines,  and 
the  other  Italian  powers,  joined  in  the  league  against  Francis, 
who  was  now  without  an  ally ;  and  the  emperor  and  the  kinpf 
of  England  were  preparing  to  invade  France  on  the  south, 
north,  and  east.  To  add  to  the  French  king's  difficulties,  a 
conspiracy  of  the  constable  of  Bourbon,  who  had  been  most 
iniquitously  deprived  of  his  estates  by  the  malice  of  the  king's 
mother,  was  discovered,  and  the  delay  occasioned  by  it  pre- 
vented his  heading  the  army  he  had  assembled.  He,  how- 
ever, sent  30,000  men,  under  admiral  Bonnivet,  into  Italy. 
Colonna,  who  commanded  in  Milan,  dying  at  this  time,  was 
succeeded  by  Lannoy,  viceroy  of  Naples,  who  was  chiefly 
directed  by  the  duke  of  Bourbon  (who  had  escaped  and  en- 
tered the  emperor's  service),  and  the  marquis  of  Pescara. 

,524.  Bonnivet  was  defeated  at  the  Sesia.  In  this  battle  fell  the 
celebrated  chevalier  Bayard. 

1525.  Having  been  successful  against  the  armies  which  invaded 
France,  the  passion  for  recovering  the  Milanese  seized  the 
French  monarch.  He  marched  at  the  head  of  a  large  army 
into  Italy ;  every  place  submitted :  he  sat  down  before  Pavia, 
a  town  well  garrisoned,  and  commanded  by  Leyva,  one  of  the 
ablest  Spanish  officers.  It  was  winter:  every  exertion  was 
made  by  the  imperial  generals  to  collect  an  army ;  fatigue 
and  the  rigor  of  the  season  reduced  that  of  the  French, 
weakened  by  a  large  part  of  it  having  been  sent  against  Na- 
ples. The  imperial  army  approached ;  prudence  counselled 
retreat;  romantic  honor  determined  the  king  to  stay.  The 
imperialists  attacked  the  French  in  their  intrenchments ;  the 
garrison  made  a  sally ;  the  Swiss  deserted  their  post ;  tlie 
rout  became  general ;  and  Francis,  after  beholding  the  flower 
of  his  nobility  perish  by  his  side,  was  forced  to  surrender 
himself  a  prisoner.    (Feb.  2). 

In  a  few  weeks  not  a  Frenchman  was  to  be  seen  in  Italy. 
Francis  was  rigorously  confined :  hard  terms  were  proposed 
to  him,  but  indignantly  rejected.  When  taken,  he  had  writ- 
ten to  his  mother  the  regent,  "  All  is  lost  but  our  honor ;" 
and  she  exerted  herself  with  vigor  to  put  the  kingdom  into  a 
posture  of  defence.  Henry  VIII.,  now  alive  to  the  danger  of 
Charles  acquiring  a  preponderating  power,  listened  to  her 
proposals  of  an  alliance,  to  which  ne  was  stimulated  bv  WqU 


Death  of  Bayard. 


WloUiffe. 


CHAP.  II.  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  395 

8ey,  whom  Charles  had  hitherto  cajoled  by  a  promise  of  the 
papacy,  but  who  had  now  learned  how  little  reliance  was  to 
be  placed  on  the  word  of  that  monarch. 

Francis,  at  his  own  desire,  had  been  removed  to  Madrid. 
It  was  long  before  he  could  get  a  sight  of  the  emperor ;  but 
when  he  threatened  to  resign  in  favor  of  the  dauphin,  and 
had  fallen  into  ill  health,  Charles,  who  found  that  if  he  died 
he  should  lose  all  the  advantages  he  proposed  to  derive  from 
his  captivity,  and  who  also  dreaded  a  confederacy  against 
him,  lowered  his  demands ;  and  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Madrid,  j^.  t 
by  which  Francis  agreed  to  surrender  Burgundy,  and  to  give  152fi 
his  two  sons  as  hostages  till  it  was  performed.  The  exchange 
was  made  on  the  frontiers,  and  Francis  set  at  liberty.  The 
states  of  Burgundy  being  assembled,  protested  against  this 
surrender  of  their  provmce;  the  pope,  Clement  VII.,  absolved 
the  king  from  the  oath  taken  at  Madrid ;  and  he  and  tlie 
kings  of  France  and  England,  the  Swiss,  Venetians,  Floren- 
tines, and  Milanese,  entered  into  an  alliance,  called  the  Holy 
League,  to  oblige  the  emperor  to  give  up  the  sons  of  Francis 
for  a  reasonable  ransom,  and  to  reinstate  Sforza  in  the  duchy 
of  Milan. 

The  confederates  took  the  field  in  Italy ;  but,  Francis  ne- 
glecting to  send  sufficient  reinforcements,  Bourbon  overran 
the  Milanese ;  and  his  troops  beginning  to  mutiny  for  want 
of  pay,  he  led  them  to  Rome.  In  the  assault  on  that  city 
(May  6),  Bourbon  himself  was  slain ;  but  Rome  was  taken, 
and  experienced  from  the  troops  of  the  pious  Charles  such 
calamities  as  had  never  been  inflicted  by  any  of  her  barbarian  1527 
conquerors  in  former  times.  The  pope  himself  was  besieged 
in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and  forced  to  surrender.  He  was 
put  into  close  confinement  till  he  should  pay  an  enormous 
ransom.  The  hypocritical  Charles  put  his  court  into  mourn- 
ing, and  ordered  prayers  to  be  oflfered  up  for  his  release,  which 
he  might  have  accomplished  by  a  single  line.  Henry  and 
Francis  were  preparing  to  invade  the  Low  Countries.  On 
hearing  of  the  pope's  captivity,  they  changed  the  scene  of 
war  :  Henry  supplied  money,  and  Francis  sent  an  army  into 
Italy  under  Lautrec.  The  pope  was  set  at  liberty ;  but  Lau- 
trec  dying,  and  Doria,  the  Genoese  admiral,  persuading  his 
countr3rmen  to  revolt,  the  aflTairs  of  the  allies  declined,  and 
the  French  army  was  ruined  before  Naples. 

Suleiman,  the  great  Turkish  sultan,  had  now  overrun  Hun- 
gary, and  threatened  the  Austrian  dominions ;  the  reforma- 
tion was  making  great  progress  in  Germany ;  Charles  wa«, 
Iherefbre,  as  well  inclined  to  peace  as  his  adversaries.    Mar-  1629 
garet  of  Austria,  aunt  of  the  emperor,  and  Loui«a,  mother 


396  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOELB.  PART  IIL 

of  Francis,  met  at  Cambray,  and  settled  the  terms  of  peace 
between  them.  Francis  agreed  to  pay  2,000,000  crowns  as 
a  ransom  for  his  sons,  to  give  up  all  claims  on  Italy,  and  to 
resign  the  sovereignty  of  Flanders  and  Artois :  Charles  aban- 
doned all  claim  to  Burgundy. 

The  Italian  states  were  not  satisfied  at  being  abandoned  to 
the  emperor ;  but  the  dread  of  the  Turks  made  him  act  with 
some  generosity.  He  pardoned  Sforza,  and  restored  to  him 
the  duchy  of  Milan ;  but  the  Florentines  were  reduced  under 
the  dominion  of  the  house  of  MedicL 

Affairs  of  Germany. 

While  Charles  was  engaged  in  the  Italian  wars,  the  opm- 
ions  of  the  reformers  had  spread  rapidly  in  Germany.  While 
at  enmity  with  the  pope,  the  emperor  was  not  very  anxious 
to  discourage  them;  but  now,  apprehending  danger  from 
them  to  the  imperial  authority,  he  resolved  to  take  measures 
A.  D.  for  their  suppression.    A  diet  was,  therefore,  convoked  at 

1529.  Spire,  V  hich  confirmed  the  edict  of  that  of  Worms  against 
Luther,  and  forbade  any  fartlier  innovation  in  religion.  Ajjainst 
this  decree,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  landgraf  of  Hesse, 
the  duke  of  Liineburg,  the  prince  of  Anhalt,  and  the  deputies 
of  fourteen  cities,  protested ;  and  hence  they,  and  the  reform- 
ed in  general,  were  called  Protestants. 

1530.  Charles  returned  to  Germany,  and  assisted  at  a  diet  at 
Augsburg ;  at  which  the  confession  of  faith  of  the  Protestants 
was  read  and  defended  by  Melancthon  and  others.  A  decree 
was  issued  against  them,  and  coercive  measures  resolved  on. 
The  Protestant  princes  met  at  Smalcalde,  and  entered  into  a 
league  for  mutual  defence,  and  a  secret  alliance  with  the 
kings  of  France  and  England.  The  Turks  were  now  men- 
acing Hungary,  and  Charles  saw  that  this  was  no  time  for 
violent  measures.  A  treaty  was,  therefore,  concluded,  in 
which  he  granted  the  Protestants  liberty  of  conscience  till 
the  meeting  of  a  general  council,  and  they  engaged  to  assist 
him  against  the  Turks. 

1532.  Suleiman  entered  Hungary  at  the  head  of  200,000  men. 
Charles  took  the  command  of  80,000  foot  and  20,000  horse, 
besides  a  vast  body  of  irregulars,  near  Vienna.  The  sultan 
retired ;  and  Charles  returned  to  Spain,  and  engaged  in  a 
successful  expedition  against  Tunis.  While  he  was  absent, 
the  sect  of  the  Anabaptists  seized  on  the  city  of  Miinster,  and 

»35  defended  it  for  some  time  courageously  against  the  troope  (rf 
the  bishop. 


CHAP.  II.  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  397 

Renewed  War  with  France. 

While  Charles  was  in  Africa,  Francis  revived  his  claim  on 
Italy.  The  king  of  England,  engaged  about  his  divorce  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  declined  having  to  do  with  the  affairs 
of  the  continent ;  and  the  league  of  Smalcalde,  indignant  at 
the  cruelties  inflicted  on  some  Protestants  in  Paris,  refused 
to  unite  with  Francis.  The  latter  resolved,  even  without 
allies,  to  venture  on  war,  under  pretence  of  chastising  the 
duke  of  Milan  for  the  murder  of  his  ambassador.  He  ap- 
proached Italy ;  but  instead  of  entering  the  Milanese,  he 
seized  a  great  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
who  appealed  in  vain  to  Charles,  whose  exchequer  was  now 
completely  empty.  Meantime  Sforza  died  without  issue,  and 
the  rights,  which  had  only  been  surrendered  to  him  and  his 
heirs,  returned  to  Francis.  Instead,  however,  of  entering  at 
once  on  the  duchy,  he  wasted  his  time  in  negotiation,  while 
Charles  took  possession  of  it  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  empire, 
though  still  pretending  to  own  the  equity  of  the  claims  of 
the  French  monarch. 

The  emperor  having  now  procured  sufficient  supplies  of  *  o 
money,  resolved  on  attempting  the  conquest  of  France.  Hav-  ^^^ 
ing  driven  the  French  out  of  Savoy,  he  invaded  the  southern 
provinces  at  the  head  of  50,000  men.  Two  other  armies  were 
ordered  to  enter  Picardy  and  Champagne.  The  system  adopted 
by  Francis  was  defensive.  From  the  Alps  and  Dauphine  to 
Marseilles  and  the  sea,  tlie  country  was  laid  waste ;  strong 
garrisons  placed  in  Aries  and  Marseilles ;  one  French  army 
strongly  encamped  near  Avignon,  another  at  Valence.  After 
fruitlessly  investing  Aries  and  Marseilles,  and  spending  two 
months  in  Provence,  Charles  retreated  with  the  loss  of  one- 
half  of  his  troops  by  disease  and  famine.  An  attempt  by 
Francis  on  the  Low  Countries,  was  followed  by  a  truce  at 
Nice,  under  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  Paul  III.  ^^ 

The  emperor  suppressed  an  insurrection  which  had  broken 
out  in  the  city  of  Ghent;  but  he  was  forced  to  make  conces- 
sions to  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  to  gain  their  assistance 
against  Suleiman,  who  had  seized  a  part  of  Hungary.  But 
the  favorite  object  of  Charles  was  the  conquest  of  Algiers ; 
and  in  the  end  of  autumn  he,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Doria 
his  admiral,  landed  in  Africa  with  a  large  army;  but  tem- 
pests scattered  his  fleet  and  destroyed  his  soldiers,  and  he  was 
*brced  to  re-embark,  with  the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  his  1511 
men. 

The  war  between  the  rival  monarchs  broke  out  anew.  The  i^9 
emperor  was  sup|)ortc(!  by  the  king  of  England  and  the  Pro- 
34 


398  HISTORY  OP  THJB  WORLD.  PART  IIL 

testant  princes,  to  whom  he  had  made  farther  concessions. 
Francis  was  allied  with  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
and  he  renewed  the  treaty  he  had  formerly  made  with  Sulei- 
A.  D.  man.  During  two  years,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Low 
1544.  Countries  were  the  scenes  of  war ;  but  the  only  battle  of  con- 
sequence was  that  of  Cerisoles,  gained  by  the  French,  in 
which  10,000  Imperialists  fell.  A  peace  was  concluded  at 
Crespi.  The  chief  articles  were,  that  tlie  emperor  should 
give  one  of  his  own  or  his  brother  Ferdinand's  daughters  to 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  second  son  of  Francis,  and  with  her  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  renounce  all  claim  to  Burgundy  ;  Fran- 
cis doing  the  same  to  Naples,  Artois,  and  Flanders  ;  and  that 
they  should  unite  against  the  Turks. 

Affairs  of  Germany. 

Charles  was  chiefly  led  to  make  the  peace  of  Crespi  by  his 
desire  to  humble  the  Protestant  princes,  and  extend  his  power 
in  the  empire.  He  therefore  made  also  a  dislionorable  truce 
with  Suleiman,  and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  pope, 
A  general  council  had  been  assembled  at  Trent ;  but  the  Pro- 
testants, seeing  the  composition  of  it,  refused  to  submit  to  its 
decrees.  Charles,  as  his  schemes  were  not  fully  ripe,  sought 
still  to  cajole  them ;  but  they  saw  through  his  views,  and  had 
recourse  to  arms.  Unable  to  resist  them,  he  negotiated  till 
he  had  collected  an  army;  but  he  still  declined  a  battle.  Mean- 
time Maurice,  marquis  of  Misnia  and  Thuringia,  a  Protestant 
prince,  who  had  not  joined  the  confederates,  secretly  agreea 
to  assist  the  emperor,  on  condition  of  getting  the  dignities 
and  territory  of  his  relative  the  elector  of  Saxony.  He  there- 
fore entered  and  overran  the  electorate.  The  elector  returned 
with  his  troops  to  defend  his  dominions;  the  city  of  Ulm  sub- 
mitted ;  its  example  was  followed  by  others,  and  the  whole 
confederacy  fell  to  pieces,  leaving  the  elector  of  Saxony  and 
1647.  the  landgraf  of  Hesse  at  the  mercy  of  the  emperor. 

The  pope,  meantime,  seeing  the  ultimate  and  real  designs 
of  the  emperor,  withdrew  his  troops,  and  Francis  negotiated 
an  alliance  with  him,  Suleiman,  England,  and  Venice,  and 
encouraged  and  assisted  with  money  the  elector  and  the  land- 
graf A  conspiracy,  headed  by  Fiesco,  broke  out  at  Genoa, 
and  every  thing  seemed  to  combine  to  throw  Charles  into 
perplexity,  when  the  death  of  Francis,  and  the  suppression 
of  Fiasco's  conspiracy,  encouraged  him  to  proceed  with  vigor 
in  Germany.  The  elector  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Mulhausen,  and  obliged  to  resign  the  electoral  dignity; 
the  landgraf  of  Hesse,  who  was  father-in-law  to  Maurice, 
submitted,  on  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  and  Maurice  be- 


Qoeen  Mary  I.  of  England. 


Chailes  1.  of  i;u;^l<ii!il. 


CTIAP.  n.  TIMES  OP  CHARLES  V.  401 

coming  securities  for  his  personal  freedom;  but  Charles,  in 
contempt  of  them,  made  him  a  close  prisoner.  All  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Smalcaldic  league  were  treated  with  the  greatest 
rigor. 

Charles  now  thought  he  might  proceed  without  opposition 
in  enslaving  the  German  nation.  As  the  council  had  been  a.  d 
removed  from  Trent  to  Bologna,  emd  he  could  not  now  ex- 1548 
pect  to  influence  it  as  he  desired,  he  protested  against  it,  and 
had  a  system  of  doctrine  drawn  up  and  presented  to  the  diet 
at  Augsburg,  to  be  conformed  to  tUl  a  proper  council  could 
be  called.  This  system,  called  the  Interim,  sought  to  steer 
between  the  two  parties,  leaning,  however,  greatly  to  the 
church  of  Rome.  It  gave  great  offence  at  Rome,  and  could 
not  be  fully  carried  into  effect  in  Germany.  Shortly  after- 
wards, Charles  made  a  stretch  of  power  even  beyond  estab- 
lishing the  Interim.  When  pressed  to  set  the  landgraf  of 
Hesse  at  liberty,  he,  by  a  public  deed,  annulled  the  bond 
which  his  securities  had  entered  into  with  him.  This  began 
to  open  the  eyes  of  the  German  princes,  and  they  now  mani- 
fested a  spirit  of  resistance.  His  brother  Ferdinand  had  been 
made  king  of  the  Romans  by  his  influence ;  but,  anxious  to 
transmit  the  empire  to  his  son  Philip,  he  tried  to  make  the 
electors  recall  their  choice,  or  at  least  place  Philip  next  in 
succession  to  his  uncle;  but  the  opposition  made  was  so 
strong,  that  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  design. 

The  Lutheran  princes  were  now  fully  aware  of  the  de- 
signs of  the  emperor,  and  Maurice  saw  that  it  was  necessary 
to  set  bounds  to  them.  Equal  to  Charles  himself  in  dissimu- 
lation, he  secretly  made  preparations  against  him,  without 
losing  his  confidence.  He  contrived  to  get  himself  appointed 
general  of  the  imperial  army,  sent  to  force  the  people  of  Mag- 
deburg to  submit  to  the  Interim,  and  after  that  object  was 
effected,  he,  under  various  pretences,  still  kept  that  army  in 
his  pay.  Charles,  meanwhile,  was  residing  at  Inspruck,  en- 
tirely occupied  with  the  council,  which  had  been  brought 
back  to  Trent  Neither  he  nor  Granville,  his  subtle  prime 
minister,  had  any  suspicion  of  the  designs  of  Maurice,  who 
had  now  formed  a  treaty  with  Henry  II.  of  France. 

Having  completed  his  preparations,  he  sent  an  embassy  to 
demand  the  liberty  of  the  landgraf  It  was  refused.  An  army 
of  20,000  foot  and  2000  horse  being  assembled,  Maurice 
threw  off  the  mask,  and  assigned  his  reasons  for  taking  drms; 
namely,  to  secure  the  Protestant  religion ;  to  maintain  the 
German  constitution  ;  to  deliver  the  landgraf  of  Hesse  from 
prioon.     The  king  of  France  added  a  manifesto,  in  which  be 

84* 


402  msTOBT  oy  the  world.  part  hi 

Btyled  himself  Protector  of  the  lAberties  of  Germany  and 
its  captive  Princes. 

The  French  troops  having'  overrun  Lorraine,  Maurice 
traversed  rapidly  Upper  Germany :  the  emperor  negotiated. 
Maurice  advanced  with  all  the  speed  he  could  make ;  and 
was  so  near  surprising  the  emperor,  that  he  was  obliged  to  fly 
into  the  Alps  in  a  litter,  in  the  midst  of  a  dark  rainy  night 
The  council  of  Trent  broke  up,  and  did  not  reassemble.  A 
conference  was  held  at  Passau :  the  terms  proposed  in  the 
name  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  were  rejected  by  the  em 
peror.  Maurice  laid  siege  to  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  and  the 
haughty  spirit  of  Charles  was  forced  to  bend.    The  treaty  of 

^  D.  Passau  overthrew  the  fabric  he  had  so  long  been  raising,  and 

•552.  placed  the  Protestant  religion  of  Germany  on  a  secure  basis. 
His  usual  good  fortune  was  now  deserting  Charles;  he 
raised  a  large  army,  entered  Lorraine,  and  laid  siege  to 
Metz ;  but  was  forced  to  abandon  it  with  the  loss  of  30,000 
men :  he  lost  the  footing  he  had  established  in  Tuscany :  the 
coast  of  Naples  was  ravaged  by  the  Turkish  fleet.  In  the 
following  year  he  had  some  success  in  the  Low  Countries ; 
but  the  Austrians  were  unfortunate  in  Hungary.  Germany 
was  now  so  tranquil,  that  a  diet  assembled  at  Augsburg,  and 

1555.  by  what  is  called  the  Recess  of  Augsburg  established  reli- 
gious peace  in  Germany,  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  parties. 

»556.  To  the  surprise  of  all  Europe,  Charles  abdicated  his  throne ; 
and,  resigning  his  dominions  to  his  son  Philip,  retired  to  spend 
the  evening  of  his  life  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Just  in  Spain. 
Having  made  a  vain  attempt  to  induce  his  brother  Ferdinand 
to  resign  the  dignity  of  king  of  the  Romans,  he  left  all  hia 
other  dominions  to  Philip,  now  married  to  Mary  queen  of 
England,  and  formed  for  him  a  truce  with  France  for  fiv<» 
years.     Ferdinand  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  electors. 

England. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  England  was  governed  by 
Henry  VIIL,  Edward  VI.,  and  Mary.  Henry  broke  with  the 
633.  court  of  Rome,  and  seized  on  the  monastic  estates :  he  ex- 
ercised over  his  people  the  most  arbitrary  power  that  Europe, 
perhaps,  has  ever  witnessed.  Not  merely  his  will,  but  Jiis 
caprice,  was  law ;  he  dictated  in  religion,  and  murdered  un- 
der form  of  justice.     In  his  foreign  wars  he  made  small  and 

iri3.  useless  acquisitions  at  vast  expense.  The  victory  of  Flodden 
Field,  gained  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  over  the  Scots, 
whose  king,  James  IV.,  fell  in  the  field,  was  the  greatest 

I'  Vt  achieved  in  this  period  by  the  English  arms.  Under  Edward 
VL  the  Protestant  religion  was  much  favored ;  but  his  sister 


Mf  AP.  n  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  403 


A.  D 


Mary,  a  bigot,  and  wife  of  the  dark,  malignant  Philip,  exer- 
cised such  cruelties  against  the  professors  of  the  reformed  1553 
faith,  as  have  affixed  in  the  minds  of  posterity  eternal  odium 
to  her  name.     In  her  reign  Calais,  which  England  had  held 
since  the  reign  of  Edward  HI.,  waa  surprised  and  taken  by  1557 
the  duke  of  Guise. 

Spain  and  Portugal, 

The  commons  of  Spain  made  a  stand  in  favor  of  their 
ereditary  liberties,  and  they  rose  in  arms  against  the  des- 
potism of  the  emperor,  under  the  command  of  tlie  brave  Pa 
dilla ;  but  the  nobles  not  joining  them,  as,  if  they  had  known 
their  true  interest,  they  should  have  done,  the  commons  were 
crushed,  and  the  liberties  of  Spain  have  been  ever  since  in 
abeyance. 

By  the  talents,  the  valor,  and  the  barbarous  cruelty  of  Cor- 
tes and  Pizarro,  the  empires  of  Mexico  and  Peru  were  at 
this  time  subjected  to  Spain. 

Don  John  III.,  a  wretched  bigot,  with  whom  dates  the  de- 
cline of  Portugal,  introduced  the  inquisition  and  the  new  so- 
ciety of  tlie  Jesuits  into  that  country.  Priestly  and  regal 
authority  conspired  to  oppress  and  degrade  the  nation. 

The  Portuguese  power  was,  meantime,  under  the  valor 
and  the  ability  of  the  great  Albuquerque,  Almeida,  Castro, 
and  others,  extended  from  the  gulf  of  Persia  to  the  isles  of 
Japan.  At  no  period  have  greater  actions  been  achieved :  un- 
happily, they  were  disgraced  by  a  spirit  of  savage  cruelty 
and  unprincipled  rapacity. 

Italy. 

In  the  holy  see  the  polished  Leo  X.  was  succeeded  by  the 
honest,  well-meaning  Adrian  VI.  It  then  passed  to  the  timid, 
uncertain  Clement  VII.,  a  Medici :  next  to  the  designing 
Paul  III.,  only  concerned  to  aggrandize  the  Farnesi,  his  own 
family :  then  to  the  lavish  and  tasteful  Julius  III. ;  and,  finally, 
to  Paul  IV.,  an  aged  monk,  who  fancied  himself  possessed  of 
the  power  of  a  Gregory  or  an  Innocent,  and  that  the  16th 
century  might  be  treated  like  the  13th. 

In  Florence,  Piero,  son  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  had  given 
up  Pisa  and  Leghorn  to  the  French,  when  Charles  VIII.  in-  1494 
vaded  Italy.  He  was  in  consequence  forced  to  leave  the  city ; 
his  palaces  were  plundered,  and  a  price  set  on  the  head  of 
Jie  MedicL  The  old  republican  tumults  ensued.  Julian  and 
John,  the  brothers  of  Piero,  now  dead,  were  restored  by  ihe  15ia 
Spanish  arms  at  the  desire  of  pope  Julius  II. ;  and  John  suc- 
ceeding that  pope  under  the  name  of  Leo  X.,  his  inhuence 


'^^  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  111 

A.D.  Strengthened  his  brother,  and,  after  the  death  of  Julian,  his 
1516.  nephew  Lorenzo,  son  of  Piero.  Lorenzo,  equal  to  any  of  his 
Jamily  m  the  qualities  that  distinguished  them,  had  meditated 
the  extension  of  his  power  from  sea  to  sea;  but  his  early 
death,  m  his  27th  year,  cut  short  all  his  great  projects.  He 
of  France  celebrated  Catherine,  afterwards  queen 

Julius  the  natural  son  of  the  brother  of  Lorenzo,  who  was 
murdered  by  the  Patzi,  took  the  government.  A  conspimcy 
was  formed  against  his  power;  but  he  was  supported  by  the 
emperor.  He  became  pope  as  Clement  VIL  ;  and  Alexander 
his  own  or  Lorenzo  II.'s  natural  son,  governed  Florence.  He 
was  obliged  to  fly  when  the  pope  was  besieged  by  the  army 
of  Bourbon ;  but  when  Clement  made  peace  with  the  e7 

f^^'^'  J^  ^^!^  ^'^  "''^"'^^  daughter  Margaret  in  marriage 
to  Alexander,  and  engaged  to  restore  him  to  the  wealth  and 
power  of  his  family.  Florence  resisted ;  and  after  the  peace 
fiIrnlT.T^  ™?^"^'  ^/™,^  besieged  it  for  ten  months,  and 
St  aV^^^^'  ^"^  the  emperor  declared  Alexande, 
hereditary  duke  of  Florence.  The  rule  of  this  protege  of  the 
pope  and  the  emperor  was,  as  was  to  be  expected,  tyrannical 

1537.  ^d  oppressive.  His  death  was  owing  to  his  vices. '  His  coush 
Lorenzmo  de'  Medici,  who  had  been  the  ready  agent  of  his 
lust,  resolved  to  destroy  him.  Under  pretext  of  putting  him 
m  possession  of  the  person  of  a  lady  whose  beauty  had  in- 
flamed  him  he  decoyed  him  to  his  house,  where  he  secretly 
murdered  him  Lorenzino  fled  to  Venice:  the  better-disposed 
citizens  wished  to  re-establish  the  republic,  but  the  Medici 

*       ffi'/r'tJ       /r^^f  to  declare  duke  Cosimo,  descended 
^rll  ^'?^^'f^^^  fi'-st  Cosimo.     A  subtle,  cruel,  and  un- 

I..7  Et     ^yf'^"^  Cosimo  oppressed  the  people,  and  banished 

1557  those  to  whom  he  owed  his  power.     He  was  himself  but  the 

«nd1n  f^fiol  P"'"-  S°'™,?  ^^^'^  ^^^""^  t°  his  dominions, 
and  in  1569  the  pope,  Pius  V.,  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
lireat  duke  of  Tuscany. 

Genoa  had,  on  account  of  her  internal  dissensions,  put  her- 
!fLr  ti,  ^  protection  of  France,  and  her  nobles  had 
served  m  the  army  of  Francis  L  She  did  not  by  this  expe- 
dient  escape  the  turbulence  of  the  Adorni  and  Fregosi,  whose 
feuds  ran  as  high  as  ever.  Andrew  Doria  determined  to  be 
the   limoleon  of  his  country.     He  formed  a  league  with 

i^  I  X"  ^"^^'f^  *h^  P"'"'  «f  Genoa,  proclaimed  an  am- 
nasty,  broke  up  the  parties,  and  new-modelled  the  ffovem- 
ment,  excluding  only  the  Adorni  and  Fregosi  from  office. 
Horn  sought  neither  power  nor  reward  for  himself;  he  nevei 


nyder  All. 


CHAP.  II.  TIMES  OF  CHARLES  V.  407 

bore  the  office  of  doge.     He  died,  honored  and  lamented,  in  ^  ^ 
his  94th  year.  15G0. 

Venice  remained  the  most  independent  state  in  Italy,  and 
was  always  on  good  terms  with  Charles  V.,  by  whose  terri- 
tories she  was  now  nearly  surrounded.  The  popes  had  brought 
Bologna,  Ravenna,  and  Ancona  fully  under  their  power. 
Parma  and  Piacenza  were,  with  the  consent  of  Charles  V., 
given  by  Paul  III.  to  his  son  Piero  Farnese,  and  on  his  death 
to  Ottavio  Farnese,  married  to  a  natural  daughter  of  the  em-  1547 
peror.  Ottavio  was  succeeded  by  Alexander,  the  celebrated 
general  of  Philip  11. 

Italy  was  now  tranquil ;  all  her  states  either  belonged  to  or 
were  in  amity  and  alliance  with  Spain.  She  had  no  disturb- 
ances to  dread ;  her  ancient  spirit  declined ;  she  sank  into 
luxury,  occupied  in  the  enjoyment  of  her  arts  and  natural 
advantagfes. 

Denmark  and  Sweden. 

These  countries  do  not  yet  enter  on  the  great  theatre  of 
Europe.  Christian  II.  had  proved  victorious,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  treachery  and  force,  in  the  struggle  for  Swedish  in- 
dependence. He  was  crowned  at  Stockholm,  and  he  and  his 
confederate,  the  archbishop  of  Upsala,  by  an  almost  unparal- 
leled piece  of  perfidy,  publicly  executed  ninety-four  of  the 
Swedish  nobles.  But  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  son  of  one  of  those 
who  were  murdered,  escaped  from  the  prison  in  which  he 
was  confined,  roused  the  miners  of  Dalecarlia  to  take  arms 
for  their  country,  and  was  successful  in  his  first  attempts ; 
gradually  all  the  people  rose  against  the  tyrant,  Gustavus 
was  elected  king  of  Sweden,  and  he  governed  with  wisdom  1523 
and  good  policy.  Gustavus  established  the  Lutheran  religion 
in  Sweden,  over  which  he  reigned  37  years.  15C)0 

Christian  II.  was  for  his  tyranny  deposed,  and  the  crown 
given  to  his  uncle  Frederic  duke  of  Holstein,  who  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Gustavus  and  the  Hanse  towns  against  1533 
the  deposed  tyrant  Frederic's  son.  Christian  III.,  was  one 
of  the  best  princes  of  the  age.  He  also  established  the  Lu- 
theran religion  m  his  dominions.  He  died  a  year  before  Gus-  1559 
tayua 

Turkey. 

Suleiman  L,  called  by  the  Christians  the  Great  and  the  1520 
Magnificent,  by  his  own  subjects  the  Lawgiver  (Kanooni), 
the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman  monarchs,  succeeded  his  father 
Selim.     In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  a  war  broke  out  with 
Hungary,  in  which  Belgrade  and  other  fortresses  were  taken  15W 


408  HISTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  m. 

by  the  Ottomans.  The  following  year  the  island  of  Rhodes 
waa  conquered,  after  a  most  gallant  defence  made  by  the 
knights  of  St  John.  In  the  second  Hungarian  campaign  of 
Suleiman  he  took  Peterwaradin,  and  the  Hungarian  king, 

1526!  Ladislaus,  lost  the  battle  and  his  life  on  the  plam  of  Mohaca, 
and  Ofen,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  opened  her  gates.    In  a 

)529.  third  Hungarian  campaign  Ofen  was  taken  by  storm,  Vienna 
was  besieged ;  but  Suleiman  was  forced  to  retire  from  before 

*532.  its  walls.     Suleiman  again  invaded  Hungary  at  the  head  of 

200,000  men ;  but  he  was  unable  to  overcome  the  resistance 

534.  of  the  town  of  Giins.     A  war  with  Persia,  in  which  Tebreez 

waa  again  taken,  and  which  gave  Bagdad  to  Suleiman,  next 

followed. 

Khair-ed-deen    Barbarossa,    the  celebrated   corsair,   con- 

1535.  quered  Tunis  for  Suleiman ;  but  it  was  retaken,  and  restored 
to  Muley  Hassan,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  Suleiman  next 
conquered  the  isles  of  the  Archipelago,  and  he  fitted  out  a 

1547.  fleet  in  the  Red  Sea,  to  oppose  the  Portuguese  in  India.  Two 
more  campaigns  against  Hungary  followed,  and  peace  was  at 
length  concluded  with  Ferdinand  and  the  emperor ;  but  war 
soon  broke  out  again.  A  large  fleet  and  army  were  sent 
against  Malta,  which  the  emperor  had  given  to  the  knights 

15*^  of  St.  John ;  but  the  valor  of  the  knights  forced  them  to  retire 
with  disgrace.  Suleiman,  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman  sul- 
tans, headed  his  armies  in  thirteen  campaigns,  and  gave  the 
•  empire  its  greatest  extent,  at  which  it  continued  for  more 
than  a  century  ere  it  began  to  decrease.  Genius  and  learn- 
ing were  encouraged  by  this  munificent  prince,  whose  reign 
was  the  Augustan  age  of  Turkey;  but  the  deaths  of  no  less 
than  ten  princes  of  the  blood,  most  of  them  his  sons  and 
grandchildren,  fix  an  indelible  stain  on  his  memory. 


CHAP.  m. 

TUIKS    OF    PHILIP    II. 

State  of  Europe  at  Philip's  Accession. 

No  monarch  ever  ascended  a  throne  with  fairer  prospecti 
than  Philip  11. ;  none  ever  had  himself  more  thoroughly  to 
blame  for  the  extinction  of  his  brightest  hopes.  His  father 
had  left  him  Spain,  humbled  under  absolute  power,  but  not 
yet  degraded  by  it,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  the  Nether 
tuids,  Mexico,  and  Peru,  now  in  the  vigor  of  their  gold  and 
•ilver  harvest;  he  waa  married  to  the  queen  of  England ;  hia 
uncle  waa  emperor  of  Germany   king  of  Bohemia  and  Hon- 


CHAP.  in.  TIMES  OP  PHILIP  II.  409 

gary,  and  possessor  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  Genoa  and 
the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland  were  allied  with  Spain ; 
Venice  feared  her ;  the  pope  was  obliged  to  support  a  prince 
wlio  proclaimed  himself  the  defender  of  the  faith.  His 
nephew,  Sebastian  king  of  Portugal,  was  a  child.  France, 
after  the  death  of  Henry  II.,  had  fallen  into  weakness  and 
confusion.  Suleiman  had  been  succeeded  by  Selim,  a  weak 
unenterprising  prince.  Finally,  the  Spanish  armies  were 
still  the  first  m  Europe,  and  were  commanded  by  the  duke 
of  Savoy,  Don  John  of  Austria,  and  the  prince  of  Parma,  three 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  eige. 

Philip's  own  character,  thoughtful,  reserved,  patient,  inde- 
fatigable, might  seem  well  calculated  to  make  the  most  of  all 
these  advantages;  but  it  was  the  very  defect  of  his  character 
that  lost  him  them  all.  A  gloomy  superstition  pervaded 
every  region  of  his  mind,  and  tinged  every  thouglit  Religion, 
witli  him,  was  the  one  thing  needful ;  but  his  religion  consist- 
ed in  external  observances,  and  in  the  belief  of  the  absurdest 
doctrines  of  popery.  Steadfastness  in  this  religion  justified 
every  crime ;  nothing  was  to  stand  in  the  way  of  his  plan  of 
reducing  the  Christian  world  under  the  one  faith  and  the  one 
master.     And  all  was  sacrificed  to  this  chimera. 

The  first  operations  of  Philip's  reign  were  fortunate.  The 
pope  insisted  on  Henry  II.  not  adhering  to  the  truce  of  Vau- 
celles ;  the  war  was  renewed,  and  Philip's  able  general,  Phil- 
ibert  duke  of  Savoy,  gained  the  battle  of  St.  Quintin.  The 
Spanish  arms  were  everywhere  successfijl,  and  the  pope  and 
Henry  were  glad  to  treat  of  peace ;  a  measure  grateful  to 
PhUip,  who  was  anxious  to  return  to  Spain,  and  who  had  all 
along  had  his  doubts  of  the  lawfulness  of  bearing  arms  against 
the  pope.  Mary  of  England  was  at  this  time  dead,  and  her 
sister  Elizabeth  had  ascended  the  throne.  Philip  and  Henry 
were  suitors  for  the  favor  of  the  young  queen ;  the  former 
sought  her  hand.  All  parties  were  anxious  for  peace.  A  a.  ». 
treaty  was,  therefore,  easily  entered  into  at  Chateau  Cam-  15i** 
bresis ;  and  as  almost  all  the  states  of  Europe  were  included 
in  it  as  principals  or  allies,  a  general  peace  and  repose  was 
produced  by  it. 

Charles  V.  had  died  the  year  before ;  Mary  of  England  was 
dead ;  Henry  II.  was  killed  at  a  tournament  shortly  after  the 
peace ;  the  restless  Paul  IV.  survived  him  but  a  few  weeks. 
A  new  set  of  actors  enter  on  the  scene. 

France. 

Henry  11.  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Francis  FT.,  the 
husband  of  Mary  the  young  queen  of  Scotland.     Protestant- 

85 


410  mSTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PAET  IH 

ism  had  made  considerable  progress  in  France.  The  king  of 
Navarre,  the  prince  of  Conde,  the  admiral  Coligni,  his  brother 
Andelot,  and  several  other  persons  of  the  highest  rank,  were 
attached  to  the  reformed  faith. 

The  powerful  family  of  Guise,  princes  of  Lorraine,  uncles 
to  the  young  queen,  supported  the  old  religion.  Francis  was 
persuaded  by  them  to  revive  the  laws  against  heresy.     The 

A.  D.  Protestants  (in  France  called  Huguenots)  saw  their  danger 

1560.  and  resolved  to  anticipate  it.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  to 
seize  the  king.  It  was  detected,  and  the  accomplices  pun- 
ished. But  an  assembly  of  the  states  was  held,  and  the  penal 
laws  suspended.  The  Guises,  however,  resolved  to  proceed, 
and  tlie  king  of  Navarre  and  his  brother  the  prince  of  Conde 
were  seizea  and  imprisoned.  The  sudden  death  of  Francis 
checked  their  career.  His  young  brother,  Charles  IX.,  came 
to  the  throne,  and  the  queen-mother  was  appointed  guardian. 
As  " divide  and  govern''  was  the  maxim  of  Catherine,  she 
gave  high  office  and  power  to  the  Protestant  leaders,  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  influence  of  the  Guises. 

1562.  The  policy  of  the  queen  did  not  produce  the  desired  eflfect. 
Animosity  ran  high  between  the  two  parties.  The  attend- 
ants of  the  duke  of  Guise  insulted  some  Protestants  at  their 
worship,  and  sixty  of  the  latter  were  slain.  The  Protestants 
all  over  France  took  arms ;  fourteen  armies  were  levied  in 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  conflict  was  carried  on 
with  the  most  extreme  virulence.  Several  of  the  principal 
cities  of  France,  as  Orleans,  Rouen,  Bourges,  Lyons,  Tours, 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  Huguenots.  Philip  of  Spain 
sent  6000  men  to  aid  the  Catholics.  Conde,  the  head  of  the 
Protestants,  addressed  himself  to  Elizabeth  queen  of  England, 
and  an  army  was  levied  in  Germany  by  Andelot  and  led  to 
Orleans.  The  king  of  Navarre  and  Montmorency  had  joined 
the  Guise  party :  the  former  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Rouen ; 
the  latter  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  the  first  fought 
between  the  parties. 

1563  The  duke  of  Guise  laid  siege  to  Orleans.  While  engaged 
in  it,  he  was  assassinated  by  a  Protestant  gentleman  named 
Poltrot.  His  death  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  his  party,  and 
they  now  willingly  came  to  an  accommodation  with  the 
Protestants. 

But  the  peace  was  intended  only  to  lull  the  Protestants. 
Catherine,  though  utterly  devoid  of  principle,  had  a  hatred 
of  the  reformed  faith,  and  a  zeal  for  the  ancient  one.  A  meet- 
ing was  concerted  at  Bayonne  between  Charles  and  his  sister, 
the  queen  of  Spain.  Catherine  accompanied  her  son ;  the 
duke  of  Alva  attended  his  mistress.     Festivities  and  gaieties 


__._^^^^ 


1 


NOBLES    AND    CALVINIST. 


Ooiignl 


CHAP.  III.  TIMES  or  PHILIP  IL  413 

of  every  kind  occupied  each  day.     All  apparently  respired 
joy  and  peace :  but  the  tempest  was  secretly  brewed  in  the 
summer  sky.     A   Holy  League  was  formed  between  the 
courts  of  France  and  Spain :  the  glory  of  God  was  to  be  pro-  a.  d 
moted,  heresy  in  the  dominions  of  both  extirpated.  1566 

The  Protestants  of  PVance  soon  learned  what  had  been 
concerted.  They  flew  to  arms ;  a  battle  was  fought  at  St. 
Denis,  in  which  they  were  worsted.  They  laid  siege  to  156a 
Chartres,  and  forced  the  court  to  agree  to  a  peace.  This 
peace  was  of  short  duration :  the  queen-mother  laid  a  scheme 
for  seizing  Conde  and  Coligni ;  they  fled  to  Rochelle ;  the 
war  was  renewed.  The  duke  of  Anjou  commanded  the 
Catholics,  and  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Jarnac,  in  which 
the  prince  of  Conde  was  taken  and  murdered.  Coligni  hav-  1&69 
ing  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants  the  young  king  of 
Navarre  and  the  young  prince  of  Conde,  made  every  effort  to 
animate  his  party,  and  at  length  laid  siege  to  Poitiers.  The 
young  duke  of  Guise  threw  himself  into  that  town,  and  de- 
fended it  with  such  valor  and  skill,  that  Coligni  was  forced 
to  raise  the  siege.  Secretly  aided  by  Elizabeth,  he  collected 
a  considerable  force;  hut  at  the  battle  of  Moncontour  he  was 
woimded  and  defeated  with  the  loss  of  nearly  10,000  men. 
The  court  deemed  the  adverse  party  now  completely  crushed, 
when,  to  their  amazement,  Coligni  advanced  wMth  a  large 
army,  and  prepared  to  lay  siege  to  Paris,  and  the  king  was 
forced  to  make  another  treaty  and  peace  with  the  Protestants. 

The  treachery  long  meditated  against  the  Protestants  was 
now  ripe.  Charles  assumed  the  appearance  of  the  utmost 
liberality  of  sentiment:  a  marriage  was  proposed  between 
his  sister  Margaret  and  the  young  king  of  Navarre.  All  the 
great  leaders  of  the  Protestants  went  to  Paris  to  the  celebra- 
tion of  it.  They  were  received  with  smiles  and  caresses  by 
the  king  and  the  queen-mother ;  all  was  festivity  till  the  eve 
of  St  Bartholomew  (Aug.  24)  arrived,  when,  by  the  secret  1575 
orders  of  the  king,  a  bloody  and  indiscriminate  massacre  of 
the  Protestants  commenced.  No  rank  or  age  was  spared; 
5(X)  gentlemen,  including  Coligni,  and  10,000  inferior  per- 
8t)ns,  perished  in  Paris  alone,  and  a  like  carnage  took  place 
in  all  the  great  towns  of  the  kingdom  whither  similar  orders 
had  been  sent.  It  is  computed  that  60,000  persons  were 
massacred. 

The  Protestants  throughout  Europe  were  filled  with  horror 
and  consternation.  At  Rome  and  Spain  the  account  was  re- 
ceived with  ecstasy,  and  public  thanks  returned  to  heaven 
But  Charles  did  not  dare  to  avow  his  real  motives ;  he  pre- 
tended that  a  conspiracy  of  the  Protestants  had  been  detected, 
85* 


414  HISTORY  OF  TUB  WORLD.  PART  111 

and  thuB  prevented.  Instead  of  losing  courage,  these  now 
only  respired  vengeance.  They  took  valiantly  to  their  arms : 
the  town  of  Sancerre  stood  a  memorable  siege.  Rochelle  held 
out  eight  months  against  the  whole  power  of  France ;  and 
^  D.  the  duke  of  Anjou,  after  losing  24,000  men  before  it,  was 
1673  compelled  to  grant  the  citizens  an  advantageous  peace. 

This  was  the  fourth  peace ;  but  the  Protestants  could  put 
no  trust  in  the  perfidious  monarch.  They  rejoiced  at  his 
574  death,  which  soon  afterwards  occurred.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  Henry  III.,  w^ho  had  been 
elected  king  of  Poland.  Henry,  by  the  advice  of  his  mother, 
sought  to  play  the  parties  against  each  other,  and  thereby 

1576.  increase  the  royal  authority.  He  gave  most  advantageous 
terms  to  the  Protestants,  now  headed  by  his  brotlier,  the  duke 
of  Anjou,  and  the  young  king  of  Navarre.  The  Catholic  party, 
directed  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  were  disgusted  by  this  mea- 

1577.  sure :  they  formed  their  celebrated  League  ;  and  the  king, 
to  weaken  it,  declared  himself  the  head  of  it.  The  war  was 
renewed ;  but  soon  terminated  by  a  new  peace.  The  League 
looked  up  to  Philip,  the  Huguenots  to  Elizabeth :  the  king, 
sunk  in  pleasure  and  in  odious  vices,  was  despised  and  dis- 
trusted by  both  parties.  The  duke  of  Anjou  was  a  restless 
ambitious  prince :  his  death  seemed  to  relieve  the  king  from 
difficulties ;  but  it  only  plunged  him  into  greater.  The  king 
of  Navarre  was  now  the  next  heir ;  the  League  was  revived ; 
the  cardinal  of  Bourbon  set  up  as  a  rival  to  the  king  of  Na- 
varre ;  and  the  king  forced  to  declare  war  against  the  Hugue- 
nots.    Great  valor  and  talent  were  displayed  by  the  king  of 

687.  Navarre.  At  Coutras  he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
royal  army ;  but  the  power  of  the  League  was  still  an  over- 
match for  the  Huguenots.  The  king  was  driven  from  Paris, 
and  threatened  with  degradation  from  his  throne :  his  spirit 
was  roused,  and  he  caused  the  duke  and  the  cardinal  of  Guise 
to  be  assassinated.  The  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  declared 
the  people  released  from  their  allegiance ;  and  the  duke  cf 
Mayenne,  brother  to  the  duke  of  Guise,  was  chosen  Lieuten- 

1589.  ant-general  of  the  State  royal  and  Crown  of  France.  The 
king  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  king  of  Navarre,  and 
both  sovereigns  advanced  tr  Paris  at  the  head  of  their  armies. 
James  Clement,  a  Dominican  monk,  here  assassinated  the 
king,  with  whom  ended  the  line  of  Valois.  The  holy  deed 
was,  as  usual,  applauded  throughout  the  Catholic  world ;  and 
Sixtus  V.  compared  it  with  the  Incarnation  and  the  Resur- 
rection. 

The  royal  army  abandoned  the   king  of  Navarre,  now 
Henry  IV.,  and  the  League  proclaimed  tJie  cardinal  of  Bour 


CHAP.  III.  TIMES  OP  PHILIP  II.  415 

bon,  under  the  name  of  Charles  X.  Henry  retired  to  Nor- 
mandy, followed  by  the  troops  of  the  League,  under  the  duke 
of  Mayenne.  Tiie  queen  of  England  sent  him  troops  and 
money.  His  forces  were  inferior  in  number,  but  superior  in  a  d 
valor,  to  those  of  the  duke;  and  at  Ivry  he  gained  a  com-  l&St) 
plete  victory  over  him  and  his  Spanish  auxiliaries.  Henry 
eoon  afterwards  invested  Paris;  the  duke  of  Parma  hastened 
from  the  Low  Countries  to  its  relief;  the  siege  was  raised ; 
oat  the  duke  declined  the  proffered  battle.  Some  fresh  at- 
teuipts  on  Paris  were  baffled ;  the  duke  of  Parma  left.  80()0 
men  with  the  League ;  the  pope  ordered  all  the  Catholics  to 
abandon  Henry,  and  sent  money  and  troops  to  the  duke  of 
Savoy,  who  had  made  himself  master  of  Provence;  the  young 
hike  of  Guise  made  his  escape  from  Tours.  Elizabeth,  on 
the  other  hand,  again  sent  troops  and  money;  Henry  laid  siege 
to  Rouen ;  but  the  prince  of  Parma  forced  him  to  raise  it,  and 
again  retreated  without  fighting.  Lesdiguieres  chased  the 
duke  of  Savoy  out  of  Provence ;  and  victories  were  gained 
by  Turenne,  and  other  generals  of  Henry. 

At  length  all  parties  grew  weary  of  the  war;  the  duke  159j 
of  Mayenne  was  disgusted  by  the  faction  of  the  Sixteen  in 
Paris,  who  were  entirely  in  the  Spanish  interest;  Henry 
was  pressed  by  the  Catholics  of  his  party  to  declare  himself 
on  the  article  of  religion,  a  thing  he  had  hitherto  avoided 
doing;  the  king  of  Spain,  too,  pressed  the  duke  of  Mayenne 
to  call  a  meeting  of  the  states,  hoping  to  gain  the  crown  for 
his  own  daughter  Isabella.  The  states  met ;  Philip's  ambas- 
sador exerted  himself  in  vain  to  get  a  declaration  in  favor  of 
the  infanta;  the  parliament  of  Paris  declared  that  the  Salic 
law  could  not  be  set  aside. 

Meanwhile  Henry,  though  successful  in  arms,  saw  that  he 
never  could  obtain  the  kingdom  by  force;  and,  with  the  con- 
foui  of  his  wisest  friends,  he  embraced  the  Cathohc  religion. 
This  measure  was  not  at  first  productive  of  all  the  advan- 
tages that  might  have  been  expected:  both  parties  were  dis- 
trustful ;  but  gradually  town  after  town  and  noble  after  noble 
submitted  to  their  king.  He  led  an  army  into  Burgundy,  ex- 
pelled the  Spaniards,  and  obliged  the  duke  of  Mayenne  to 
week  an  acconunodation  ;  he  received  the  pope's  absolution  ; 
ihe  duke  of  Guise,  now  his  friend,  surprised  Marseilles;  the 
duke  of  Mayenne  submitted,  and  continued  ever  after  warmly 
iittached  to  his  person  and  government;  but  the  arclidiike 
Albert  surprised  Calais;  the  Spanish  governor  of  Doiirlons 
took  Amiens;  and  the  French  finances  were  in  so  dilapidated 
a  state,  that  Henry  could  not  raise  an  army.  The  prudence 
and  ability  of  the  great  Sully  enabled  him  at  last  to  i.ike  Uie 


416  HISTOBY  OF  THE  "WOELD.  fART  111 

A.D.  fieldattheheadof  awell-appointodarmyof  more  than  20,000 

1597  men ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  oJBEorts  of  Albert,  Amiens  was  forced 
to  surrender. 

The  duke  of  Mercoeur  was  still  in  arms  in  Britany.  Henry 
marched  against  him ;  but  the  duke  offering  his  only  daugh- 
ter and  a  large  dower  to  king  Henry's  natural  son,  the  pro- 
posal was  accepted,  and  the  duke  submitted.  All  France 
now  cheerfully  obeyed  its  lawful  monarch.  To  dissipate  tlie 
apprehensions  of  the  Huguenots,  iienry  summoned  the  head 
of  them  to  Nantes,  and  gave  the  celebrated  edict  named  from 

.598  that  town,  which  secured  them  the  exercise  of  their  religion, 
and  declared  them  eligible  to  all  places  of  trust,  profit,  ana 
honor.  Peace  was  now  absolutely  necessary  to  France,  so 
long  torn  by  civil  dissensions ;  and  Henry  concluded  at  Ver- 
vins  a  treaty  with  the  Spanish  king. 

During  the  remaining  years  of  his  reign,  Henry,  aided  by 
his  wise  and  virtuous  friend  and  minister  Sully,  was  indefati- 
gable in  restoring  France  to  order,  tranquillity,  and  power. 
He  was  still,  however,  harassed  by  the  intrigres  of  the 
Spanish  cabinet ;  and  at  length  he  took  the  occ&sion  of  the 
disputed  succession  of  the  duchies  of  Cleves  and  Juliers  to 
undertake  his  long-meditated  plan  of  humbling  the  house  ot 
Austria;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  preparations  he  perished  by 

1610  the  dagger  of  the  assassin  Ravaillac.  Henry  was  justly 
styled  the  Great :  he  possessed  all  kingly  virtues ;  the  blem- 
ish of  his  character  was  his  passion  for  women.  After  the 
death  of  Margaret  of  Valois,  he  married  Mary  of  Medici, 
daughter  of  Francis  duke  of  Tuscany. 

The  Netherlands. 

The  Netherlands  had  grown  wealthy  by  trade.  A  freedom 
of  municipal  government,  and  consequently  of  opinion,  pre- 
vailed in  their  cities,  and  the  reformed  doctrines  easily  ob- 
tained a  footing  tliere.  Charles  V.  had  sought  in  vain  to 
suppress  them.  Philip  disliked  the  people,  and  he  detested 
the  new  opinions;  he  insulted  and  offended  the  counts  of 
Egmont  and  Horn,  and  the  prince  of  Orange.  They  became 
the  leaders  of  the  oppressed  people.  Philip  determined  to 
crush  the  nation  ;  and  the  relentless  duke  of  Alva  was  sent 
with  a  large  army  as  governor  to  the  Netherlands.  Egmont 
and  Horn,  who  had  been  the  chief  agents  in  composing  the 
ferment  of  the  Fleming8,were  notwithstanding  brought  to  the 
block  by  Alva.  Nothing  was  to  be  heard  but  cries  of  despair, 
to  be  seen  but  torture  and  death. 

"William  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orange,  led  an  army  out  of 
Germany,  and  offered  battle  in  vain  to  Alva.    The  Spaniards 


HENRY   IV.    PLAYING    WITH    HIS   CHILDREN. 


Henry  I V.  of  France. 


rHAP.  IIL  TIMES  OF  PHILIP  II.  419 

held  all  the  fortified  towns,  and  the  prince  was  forced  to  dis- 
band his  troops.  Alva's  tjrranny  knew  no  bounds ;  the  people 
dared  not  to  oppose.  The  queen  of  England,  though  favor- 
able to  the  Flemings,  was,  at  the  desire  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
obliged  to  exclude  their  privateers  from  her  ports.  The 
Gueux  (^Beggars),  as  their  crews  were  called,  seized  on  the  ^  ^ 
port  of  the  Brille  in  Holland.  Alva  sent  a  force  against  1572 
them ;  the  people  of  the  neighborhood  rose  and  defeated  it, 
and  put  themselves  under  the  prince  of  Orange,  by  whose 
exertions  the  province  of  Holland,  and  shortly  after  that  of 
Zealand,  cast  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  prince  took  Mech- 
lin, Oudenard,  and  Dendermond ;  the  gallant  defence  of 
Haarlem  convinced  Alva  of  the  inutility  of  strong  measurea 
He  tried  in  vain  to  induce  the  people  of  Holland  to  submit  to 
the  clemency  of  Philip ;  but  they,  who  knew  what  the  tender 
mercies  of  Alva  and  his  master  were,  set  them  at  defiance. 
The  duke  laid  siege  to  Alcmaar;  he  was  repulsed  :  he  fitted 
out  a  large  fleet;  it  was  defeated  by  the  Zealanders:  he  1563 
prayed  to  be  recalled,  and  left  the  Low  Countries,  boasting 
that  in  five  years  he  had  delivered  18,000  persons  to  the  exe- 
cutioner. 

Alva  was  succeeded  by  Ilequesons,  commander  of  Castile, 
a  man  of  mild  disposition ;  but  the  war  still  raged  with  al- 
ternate success.  Leyden  was  invested  by  the  Spaniards;  157 i 
the  citizens  endured  every  extreme  of  famine  and  distress; 
the  Dutch  opened  the  dikes ;  a  violent  wind  drove  the  waters 
against  the  Spanish  works;  and  the  commander  Valdez  was, 
after  losing  the  flower  of  his  army,  forced  to  raise  the  siege. 
Conferences  were  now  held,  but  to  no  purpose,  at  Breda,  un-  157.=) 
der  the  mediation  of  the  emperor.  The  war  was  renewed : 
the  Spaniards  proved  too  powerful  for  the  two  provinces; 
they  had  entered  Zealand,  and  were  meditating  the  conquest 
of  Holland,  when,  in  their  despair,  the  Dutch  offered  the 
sovereignty  of  their  country  to  the  queen  of  England.  That 
prudent  princess  declined  it,  but  mediated  for  them  in  vain 
with  Philip.    The  war  raged  as  fiercely  as  ever. 

Meanwhile  Requesens  died ;  and  tlie  Spanish  garrison  1570 
committed  such  atrocities  at  Antwerp,  that  all  the  provinces, 
except  Luxemburg,  entered  into  the  Pacification  of  Ghent, 
whose  object  was  the  expulsion  of  foreign  troops,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  ancient  liberties  of  the  states.  Don  Jchn 
of  Austria,  the  succeeding  governor,  seeing  the  inutility  of 
resistance,  agreed  to  confirm  the  pacification,  and  peace  waj 
»t  length  restored. 

The  ambition  of  Don  John  violated  the  peace,  and  war 
broke  out  anew.     As  he  had  meditated  marrying  the  queen 


420  mSTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

^  j^  of  Scots,  and  claiming  the  crown  of  England,  Elizabeth  no 
1578.  longer  hesitated  to  assist  the  malcontents  with  men  and 
money.  The  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine  also  collected  an 
army  to  aid  them.  But  discord  arose  among  the  Netherland- 
ers.  Jealous  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  the  duke  d'Arschot 
and  other  Catholic  nobles  privately  invited  Mathias,  brother 
to  the  emperor  Rodolf  II.,  to  take  the  government.  Mathiaa 
suddenly  appeared ;  the  prince  of  Orange  prudently  joined 
him ;  Don  John  was  deposed,  and  Mathias  made  the  prince 
his  lieutenant,  to  the  great  mortification  of  d'Arschot. 

Don  John,  being  jomed  by  the  prince  of  Parma  and  18,000 
veterans,  attacked  and  defeated  the  army  of  the  states  at 
Gemblours.  Dissension  continued  between  the  two  parties. 
Mathias  was  despised ;  the  prince  of  Orange  suspected  by 
both  on  account  of  his  moderation.  By  the  influence  of  the 
Catholic  party,  the  duke  of  Anjou  was  declared  Defender  of 
the  Liberties  of  the  Netherlands.  Don  John  dying  shortly 
afterwards,  the  command  of  the  Spanish  forces  passed  to  the 
prince  of  Parma,  one  of  the  first  generals  and  statesmen  of 
the  age. 

The  prince  of  Orange  saw  the  necessity  of  a  closer  union 
1579  among  the  Protestant  states.  Deputies  met  at  Utrecht  (Jan. 
15),  from  Hollar.!,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Overyssel,  and  Guelderland,  and  signed  the  famous  union  of 
the  Seven  United  Provinces.  The  king  of  Spain  sought  in 
vain  to  detach  the  prince  of  Orange  from  the  union ;  he  was 
resolved  to  stand  or  fall  with  his  country.  The  prince  of 
Parma  made  a  treaty  with  the  people  of  the  southern  states; 
the  Catholics  in  general  favored  him,  and  he  took  several 
towns :  the  states,  however,  continued  resolute ;  they  again 
oflTered  the  sovereignty  to  Elizabeth,  and  on  her  refusing  it, 
t£8a  conferred  it  on  the  duke  of  Anjou. 

The  duke  of  Anjou  forced  the  Spaniards  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Cambray ;  but  when  he  went  to  England  on  the  bootless 
project  of  marrying  EKzabeth,  the  prince  of  Parma  gained 
great  advantages  in  the  Netherlands.  When  he  returned, 
he  made  a  rash  and  violent  attempt  on  the  liberties  of  the 
states,  and  was  obliged  to  retire  to  France,  where  he  shortly 
afterwards  died.  JNlathias  had  retired  to  Germany,  and  the 
conflict  was  now  between  the  two  great  princes  of  Orange 
and  Parma. 

Philip  had  set  a  reward  on  the  head  of  the  prince  of  Or- 
ange, and  the  dagger  of  an  assassin,  Balthazar  Gerard,  de- 
585  prived  the  states  of  their  able  and  patriotic  leader.  Their 
gratitude  made  them  appoint  his  son  Maurice,  a  youth  of 
eighteen  years,  their  Stadtholder,  and  captain-general  by  sea 


.'.TIAP.  III.  TIMES  or  PHILIP  II  421 

and  land ;  their  rage  stimulated  them  to  renewed  exertion. 
The  prince  of  Parma  had  reduced  Ghent  and  Brussels;  he 
now  invested  Antwerp :  the  citizens  opened  their  sluices  and 
broke  down  their  dikes ;  the  prince  cut  a  canal  to  carry  off 
the  waters ;  he  erected  a  fortified  bridge  across  the  Scheld, 
to  prevent  the  town  being  relieved  by  sea.  The  Hollanders, 
expecting  that  the  fall  of  Antwerp  would  benefit  their  town 
of  Amsterdam,  obstructed  every  measure  for  its  relief.  The 
city  was  forced  to  surrender.  It  declined,  and  Amsterdam 
flourished. 

The  loss  of  Antwerp  was  a  great  blow  to  the  states.  Eliza- 
beth saw  now  the  necessity  of  aiding  them  effectually.  The 
earl  of  Leicester  was  sent  to  Holland  with  5000  foot  and  1000 
horse.  The  states  made  him  their  governor ;  but  his  inso- 
lence and  incapacity  obliged  his  mistress  to  recall  him.  Prince 
Maurice  was  made  governor,  and  lord  Willoughby  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  English  forces.  The  prince  of  Parma 
was  now  obliged,  more  than  once,  to  lead  his  army  into  France 
in  aid  of  the  League,  and  he  was  occupied  in  preparing  for 
the  invasion  of  England ;  so  that  the  war  was  not  prosecuted  a.  d. 
with  very  great  vigor.  His  death,  as  he  was  once  more  pre-  1^92 
paring  to  enter  France,  delivered  Maurice  from  a  powerful 
opponent 

He  was  succeeded  in  the  chief  command  by  count  Mans- 
feld,  an  able  and  experienced  officer.  The  scale  of  the  states 
now  preponderated ;  prince  Maurice  took  Breda  before  the  159* 
eyes  of  the  Spanish  commander,  and  then  Gertruydenburg 
and  Groningen.  At  Turnhout,  prince  Maurice  and  Sir  Fran-  1597 
cis  Vere  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Spaniards.  The 
states  refused  now  to  be  included  in  the  peace  of  Vervins. 
Philip  IL  died.  He  had  seen  how  fruitless  was  the  contest,  1598 
and,  as  a  decent  mode  of  ending  it,  he  had  transferred  to  his 
daughter  Isabella,  contracted  to  the  archduke  Albert,  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Low  Countries.  Albert  wrote  letters  to 
the  United  Provinces,  entreating  them  to  submit  to  their 
natural  princes,  who  would  govern  them  with  justice  and 
lenity.  They  returned  no  answer.  An  edict  was  issued,  pre- 
cluding them  from  all  intercourse  with  the  Spanish  Nether- 
'ands,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  Philip  II.  had  wisely  never  med- 
dled witli  their  trade.  The  Dutch  sent  a  fleet  to  cruise 
against  the  Spaniards,  and  they  turned  their  views  towards 
the  East  Indies,  and  soon  possessed  the  far  greater  part  of  the 
lucrative  trade  which  the  Portuguese  had  enjoyed. 

The  war  in  tlie  IjOw  Countries  was  continued  with  spirit 
Each  side  was  strongly  reinforced ;  towns  were  taken  on  both 
■ides*  the  two  armies  came  to  a  general  engagement  ai 
86 


422  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  m. 

A.  D.  Nieuport  near  Ostend,  and  after  a  well-sustained  contest  the 

li.;;o.  Spanish  veterans  gave  way.     But  the  troops  of  prince  Mau- 
rice were  so  exhausted  by  fatigue,  that  he  was  unable  to  un 
dertake  any  thing  before  Albert  had  collected  a  superior  army. 

1601.  Overtures  of  peace  were  made  to  and  rejected  by  the  states. 
Maurice  took  Rhinburg ;  Albert  laid  siege  to  Ostend,  which 
was  vigorously  defended  by  Sir  Francis  Vere,  and  he  was 

iG02.  forced  to  turn  the  siege  into  a  blockade.  The  states  changea 
the  garrison,  putting  in  fresh  troops ;  the  besiegers  were  re- 
inforced by  8000  Italians,  under  the  marquis  Spinola.  who 
took  the  command,  and  by  his  skill  reduced  the  town  *o  ruins. 

1604.  An  honorable  capitulation  was  granted  by  him  to  the  gar- 
rison. 

This  siege  cost  the  archduke  70,000  men,  and  Maurice  had 
meantime  made  acquisitions  equal  to  Ostend.  It  was  resolved 
to  prosecute  the  war  with  vigor;  Spinola  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief: he  had  during  two  years  considerable  suc- 
cess ;  but  his  troops  mutinied  for  want  of  pay,  and  he  gave 
it  as  his  opinion  that  the  subjugation  of  the  United  Provinces 
was  impracticable.    The  pride  of  Spain  was  reduced  to  treat 

1607  with  the  Dutch  as  an  independent  nation.  A  suspension  of 
arms  was  agreed  to,  and  finally,  tliough  opposed  by  the  Or 
ange  party,  a  truce  for  ten  years  was  made  at  the  Hague,  un 

i609.  der  the  mediation  of  France  and  England. 

Thus,  aft;er  a  severe  contest  of  thirty-seven  years,  inde- 
pendence was  assured  to  the  United  Provinces.  During  the 
conflict  they  had  increased  in  wealth,  had  made  extensive 
acquisitions  in  the  East,  and  established  a  navy  equal  to  any 
at  the  time. 

England. 

559.  The  throne  of  England  was  at  this  eventful  period  filled 
by  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  sister  of  the  two 
preceding  sovereigns ;  a  princess  whose  many  great  qualities 
have,  in  despite  of  some  defects  and  weaknesses,  and  one 
crime  (as  we  must  call  it),  obtained  her  the  applause  of  suc- 
ceeding ages.  On  her  succession,  the  Protestant  religion  was 
lastingly  established  in  England.  PhDip  of  Spain,  despair- 
mg  of  obtaining  her  hand,  was  now  become  her  implacable 
foe ;  and  as  the  Catholics  denied  the  legality  of  her  mother's 
marriage,  they  consequently  denied  her  right  to  the  throne, 
and  they  asserted  the  priority  of  the  claims  of  Mary  queen 
of  Scots,  descended  from  the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  This 
last  ill-fated  princess,  by  this  claim,  and  by  her  imprudence 
and  her  superior  beauty,  excited  the  envy  and  jealousy  of 
Elizabeth ;  her  Catholic  bigotry  alarmed  the  fears  of  the  Pro- 


^^^lai"' ' 


CHAP.  III.  TIMES  OF  PHILIP  II.  425 

Instants ;  her  crimes  alienated  from  her  many  who  pitied  her 
misfortunes.  Yet,  guilty  as  was  Mary  and  as  was  Elizabeth, 
^heir  times,  their  situations,  and  other  circumstances,  will 
offer  many  an  excuse  for  each ;  and  pity  will  often  take  the 
place  of  blame  in  the  mind  of  the  attentive  examiner  of  their 
fiistory,  especially  of  tliat  of  the  unfortunate  queen  of  Scots, 
who,  brought  up  amid  the  milder  manners  of  the  court  of 
France,  was  ill-fitted  to  contend  with  the  turbulence  and  bar- 
barism of  her  native  realm  ;  and  who,  imprisoned  by  her  own 
subjects,  and  thence  flying  into  England  to  seek  the  protec- 
tion of  a  sister-queen  and  relative,  found  another  prison,  and, 
after  a  confinement  of  nineteen  years,  an  unjust  and  igno- 
minious death. 

Philip  had  long  been  making  preparations  for  the  invasion  a.  d 
of  England :  50,000  men  were  assembled  under  the  prince  1^^ 
of  Parma  in  the  Low  Countries  for  that  purpose ;  ships  were 
built  in  all  the  ports  of  his  dominions.    The  Invincible  Fleet,  1588 
as  it  was  proudly  called,  sailed  at  length  from  the  port  of 
Lisbon ;  but  tlie  courage  and  skill  of  the  English  mariners 
defeated  it;  the  winds  of  heaven  dispersed  and  ehattered  it; 
and  but  a  small  portion  revisited  Spain.     "  /  sent  myjlcet  to 
combat  the  English,  not  the  elements.     God  be  praised,  the 
calamity  is  not  greater,'^  expressed  the  real  or  affected  resig- 
nation of  Philip:    "  Afflavit  Deus,  et  dissipantnr  iiiimici" 
the  real  or  affected  piety  of  Elizabeth,  who  had  evinced,  in 
the  season  qf  danger,  a  spirit  worthy  of  the  greatest  of  her 
predecessors. 

With  Elizabeth  ended  the  house  of  Tudor,  a  race  of  bom 
despots.  Henry  VII.  was  subtle  and  oppressive ;  Henry  VIIL 
barbarous  and  capricious;  Edward  VI.  died  before  he  could 
show  his  disposition  ;  Mary  was  an  odious  and  cruel  fanatic; 
Elizabeth  was  insincere  and  arbitrary,  but  prudent  and  judi 
cious.  She  loved  her  subjects ;  but  on  the  same  principle  as 
her  contemporary  Shah  Abbas  loved  his, — because  they  were 
hers,  and  she  knew  that  their  prosperity  was  her  power ;  but 
woe  to  any  of  them  who  dared  oppose  her  will  or  her  caprice ! 
Yet  like  every  truly  great  mind,  she  could  yield  to  circum- 
stances, and  bend  before  the  storm  which  it  were  folly  to 
resist 

During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  rebellions  of  Desmond 
ind  O'Neal  in  Ireland  were  crushed ;  a  colony,  called  Vir- 
ginia, was  planted  in  the  New  World;  Sir  Francis  Drake 
sailed  round  the  globe ;  an  intercourse  was  opened  with  the 
great  empire  of  Russia.  Trade  and  commerce  were  en- 
couraged by  this  great  princess ;  literature  was  he.d  in  honor 
anu  flourished. 
36* 


426  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  iXI 

Portugal. 

A.  D.      Don  John  III.  left  his  dominions  to  his  son  Don  Sebastian 

1555.  a  boy  under  age.  Don  Henry,  grand-uncle  to  the  young 
prince,  was  in  holy  orders  and  a  cardinal :  the  Jesuits  man- 
aged to  have  the  young  king  committed  to  tlieir  care,  and 
they  used  all  their  influence  to  extend  the  power  of  the 
church,  and  of  their  own  order.  Don  Alessio  Meneses  in 
vain  tried  to  withdraw  the  king  from  them ;  in  vain  his  grand- 
mother, the  sister  of  Charles  V.,  wished  to  have  the  young 
monarch  married.  She  was  threatened  and  insulted  by  the 
holy  fathers,  who  sought  to  dissipate  his  mind  by  frequent 
journeys;  and  when  the  people  began  to  murmur,  excited 
him  to  an  expedition  to  Africa. 

A  Sheriff,  i.  e.  a  descendant  of  the  prophet,  had  seized  on 
the  throne  of  the  Merinide  emir  of  Morocco,  and  founded  the 

1519  dynasty  which  still  reigns  in  that  country.  His  successor, 
Mohammed  Sheriff,  conquered  Fez.  In  the  reign  of  Sebas- 
tian the  throne  was  occupied  by  Abdallah  Sheriff.  Sebastian, 
in  the  ardor  of  youth,  and  encouraged  by  the  Jesuits,  was 
preparing  to  sail  for  India,  and  have  himself  crowned  emperor 
of  the  East,  when  a  brother  of  the  Sheriff,  expelled  from  Mo- 
rocco, came  to  seek  his  protection.  The  "invasion  of  Africa 
was  resolved  on.  The  old  queen,  who  foresaw  and  vainly 
endeavored  to  avert  its  disastrous  consequences,  died,  it  is 
said,  of  grief.  Full  of  enthusiasm,  but  ignorant  of  war,  the 
young  king  passed  over  to  Africa  at  the  head  of  20,000  men. 
The  aged  Sheriff  met  him  at  Alcazar-quivir  with  a  superior 
army.  Exhausted  by  age  and  disease,  Abdallah  expired  in 
the  midst  of  the  conflict ;  but  a  complete  victory  crowned  the 

1578.  African  arms.  Sebastian  disappeared,  most  probably  slain; 
but  his  subjects  long  continued  to  believe  him  living,  and  to 
look  for  his  return. 

Cardinal  Henry  mounted  the  throne  of  Portugal.  On  his 
death  the  succession  was  disputed.  The  only  male  issue  left 
by  the  four  sons  of  Don  Manuel  was  Antonio,  prior  of  Prato, 
the  natural  son  of  Antonio  duke  of  Beja.  Don  Edward  had 
left  two  daughters,  one  married  to  the  great  prince  of  Parma ; 
but  as  she  was  thus  become  a  foreigner,  she  was  excluded  by 
the  Constitutions  of  Lamego :  the  other  was  married  to  the 
duke  of  Braganza,  and  he  had  by  law  a  right  to  the  crown. 
Philip  II.  was  son  to  a  daughter  of  Don  Manuel ;  but  as  she 
had  become  a  foreigner  by  her  marriage,  she  could  transmit 
no  claim.  Philip,  however,  set  up  a  claim.  As  he  was  by  far 
the  most  powerful  of  the  condidates,  he  very  easily  made  it 
good :  the  prior  of  Prato  alone  resisted.  The  state  of  the  con- 


CHAP.  III.  TIMES  OF  PHILIP  II.  427 

tinent  prevented  any  princes  supporting  the  just  claims  of 
the  duke  of  Braganza ;  and  he  himself  was  a  quiet,  easy  man, 
satisfied  with  obtaining  honors  and  dignitiea     Philip  was  ^  p 
crowned  at  Lisbon.  158: 

Thus,  867  years  after  the  fall  of  the  Gothic  kingdom,  the 
whole  peninsula  was  reunited  under  one  head ;  happy  if  that 
head  had  not  been  Philip  II.! 

Germany. 

Charles  V.  was  succeeded  in  the  imperial  dignity  by  his 
orother   Ferdinand,   king  of  the   Romans.     This   excellent 
prince  directed  all  his  efforts  to  the  establishment  of  civil 
and  religious  concord  in  the  empire.    By  the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  1577 
a  reconciliation  was  made  between  the  houses  of  Hesse  and 
Nassau.     The  council  of  Trent  was  reassembled :  but  the 
Protestant  princes  met  and  came  to  the  determination  of  ad-  1561. 
hering  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  whatever  the  council 
might  decree.     All  the  well-meant  efforts  of  the  emperor 
were  in  vain;  the  council,  bent  only  on  the  now  hopeless 
project  of  exalting  the  power  of  the  church,  would  listen  to 
none  of  his  prudent  suggestions.     Afler  passing  a  set  of  de- 
crees, which  effectually  closed  the  doors  against  unity,  this  1563 
last  of  general  councils  was  dissolved. 

Maximilian  II.  had  been  chosen  king  of  the  Romans  in  the  1564 
lifetime  of  his  father.  Immediately  on  his  accession  he  was 
engaged  in  war  with  Suleiman  I.,  who  even  meditated  the 
conquest  of  the  German  empire.  Selim  II.  concluded  a  truce 
with  the  emperor.  During  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  this 
mild  and  excellent  prince,  Germany  enjoyed  peace  and  tran- 
quillity. His  son  and  successor,  Rodolf  II.,  inherited  his  pacific  1576i, 
temper. 

Poland. 

At  this  period  the  Polish  constitution  underwent  a  great  1571 
alteration.  On  the  death  of  the  estimable  Sigismund  Au- 
gustus, the  last  male  of  the  Jagellons,  the  diet,  consisting  of 
182  deputies,  met,  and  determined  that  no  king  should  have 
the  power  of  nominating  his  successor.  The  election  of  a 
king  was  thus  regulated : — On  the  plain  of  Vola,  near  War- 
saw, the  senate  and  the  people  assembled.  The  former  was 
composed  of  two  archbishops,  fifteen  bishops,  thirty-seven  voi- 
vodes  (dukes),  eighty-two  castellans  (senators  and  lieutenants 
of  the  voivodcs),  and  ten  ministers  of  state.  The  senate  met 
m  a  wooden  house ;  the  deputies  and  the  other  nobles  around 
it,  within  a  wall  and  ditch.  The  king  assembled  and  pre- 
sided over  this  diet,  wherein  all  matters  relating  to  internal 


428  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  nt 

and  external  policy  were  transacted.  The  powers  of  the 
monarch  were  extremely  limited;  but  he  appointed  to  ecclesi- 
astical dignities,  conferred  nobility,  commanded  the  army,  and 
his  assent  was  necessary  to  give  validity  to  tlie  acts  of  the 
diet 

The  Protestant  religion  having  made  great  progress  in 
Poland,  the  greater  part  of  the  senate  were  of  that  persua- 
sion; the  most  perfect  toleration  prevailed;  all  dissidents,  aa 
the  non-catholics  were  styled,  were  eligible  to  all  offices. 
The  Arians  and  Socinians  were  numerous  in  Poland;  the 
latter,  when  persecuted  everywhere  else,  found  an  asylum 
there.     Racau  was  their  chief  establishment. 

A-  D.      On  the  death  of  Sigismund,  a  Protestant  named  Szafraniec 

1573.  ^j^g  proposed  as  his  successor ;  but  the  choice  fell  upon  Henry 
of  Valois,  duke  of  Anjou,  brother  to  Charles  IX.  Henry  suc- 
ceeding to  his  brother  in  France,  unceremoniously  quitted 

1575  Poland,  and  the  Poles  chose  Stephen  Bathori,  prince  of  Tran- 
sylvania, a  wise  and  brave  monarch.  They  insisted  on  his 
marrying  Anna  Jagellon,  daughter  of  Sigismund,  to  prevent 
any  prince  whom  she  might  espouse  claiming  the  crown. 
Stephen  was  by  her  induced  to  embrace  the  Catholic  religion. 

1587  His  successor  was  Sigismund  Vasa,  crown-prince  of  Sweden, 
descended  on  the  mother's  side  from  the  Jagellons. 

Italy. 

'459  The  haughty  Caraffa  (Paul  IV.)  was  followed  in  the  papal 
chair  by  the  pious  and  zealous  Pius  IV.  and  V.,  and  the  good 
and  well-intentioned  Gregory  XIII.  The  able,  the  vigorous, 
the  resolute  Montalto  (Sixtus  V.)  next  occupied  the  seat  of 
St  Peter.  This  penetrating  statesman  saw  clearly  through 
the  selfish  policy  of  Philip  II.,  whom  he  secretly  wished  no 
success ;  and  he,  in  his  heart,  admired  the  king  of  France 
and  queen  of  England,  against  whom  he  discharged  his  spir- 
itual thunder.  He  established  a  rigorous  police  in  the  papal 
territories,  and  curbed  the  excesses  of  the  lawless  nobles. 
His  strong  measures  against  the  great  were  followed  up  by 
his  successor  Aldobrandini  (Clement  VIII.) 

In  Florence,  Cosimo,  the  first  grand  duke,  fortunate  in 
other  respects,  was  unhappy  in  his  family.  His  daughter 
Lucretia  was  poisoned  by  her  husband,  a  duke  of  Ferrara ; 
her  sister  Isabella  was  strangled  by  a  prince  of  the  Orsini,  to 
whom  she  was  married.  The  cardinal  John  of  Medici  wa.s 
murdered  by  his  brother  Garcia,  on  account  of  a  dispute  at 
the  chase,  and  Cosimo  put  his  son  Garcia  to  death  with  hia 
own  hand.    Their  mother  died  of  grief.    His  eldest  daughter 


j^^^^55^S 


Qnaen  Ellsaoeth. 


CHAP.  IIL  TIMES  OF  PHILIP  II.  431 

was,  on  account  of  improper  love,  poisoned  by  order  of  the 
grand  duke. 

Francis,  the  second  grand  duke,  also  perisheo  by  poison,  a.  d 
A  Florentine,  named  Buonaventuri,  scttlea  at  Venice,  had  1576 
run  away  with  Bianca,  the  daughter  of  the  senator  Capello. 
They  came  to  Florence,  where  they  lived  in  poverty.  The 
{fraud  duke  saw  Bianca,  admired,  and  got  acquainted  with 
her.  Buonaventuri  acquired  wealth  and  honors.  He  loved 
a  widow,  and  he  employed  his  power  to  oppress  her  brothers', 
the  grand  duke  reproving  him,  he  replied  with  insolence  and 
threats ;  he  was  abandoned  to  the  vengeance  of  those  whom 
he  had  injured,  and  he  was  murdered.  Just  at  this  time  the 
grand  duchess,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  died. 
Francis  married  his  beloved  Bianca,  Soon  after,  she  took  a 
hatred  to  her  brother-in-law,  the  cardinal  Ferdinand,  and  at- 
tempted to  poison  him  at  dinner.  The  cardinal,  put  perhaps 
on  his  guard,  declined  the  proffered  viands ; — the  grand  duke, 
not  aware  of  the  truth,  ate  of  the  dish  to  remove  his  suspi- 
cions : — Bianca  saw  she  was  lost : — she  also  tasted  of  the  dish,  IbV 
and  died  with  her  husband. 

The  cardinal  now  became  grand  duke.  He  was  a  prince 
of  great  political  prudence  and  sagacity,  and  his  maxims  were 
adopted  by  some  leading  courts.  But  he  gave  the  reins  with- 
out restraint  to  every  sensual  indulgence,  and  his  example 
was  followed  by  his  subjects.  Manufactures  languished,  mo- 
nopoly and  companies  checked  trade ;  but  Florence  was  one 
of  the  handsomest,  richest,  and  politest  cities  in  Europe. 

The  dukes  of  Savoy  were  proceeding  with  their  character-  1559 
istic  activity.     Emanuel  Philibert,  secured  in  his  dominions 
by  the  treaty  of  Chateau  Cambresis,  turned  all  his  thoughts  1564 
to  depressing  the  nobles  and  increasing  the  ducal  authority. 
He  established  a  militia,  built  the  citadel  of  Turm,  and  forti- 
fied Mommelian  and  Vercclle;  he  created  the  manufacture 
of  silk  and  the  culture  of  olives ;  he  greatly  increased  the 
revenues  by  his  wise  measures,  and  was  enabled  to  let  the 
assembly  of  the  states  go  out  of  use.  His  son  Charles  Emanuel  1584 
had  all  the  talents  of  a  great  prince,  and  could  accommodate 
himself  to  all  circumstances.     His  fault  was  neglect  of  his 
word  when  it  interfered  with  his  interest.     By  e.xchange  he 
obtained  Saluzzo,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  acquisition 
of  a  part  of  Montferrat  by  his  son.     His  reign  was  long  and  1590 
successful. 

Turkey. 

Sclim  II.,  on  succeeding  his  father  Suleiman,  concluded  a  1566. 
truce  for  twelve  years  with  the  emperor  Maximilian.     He 


432  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IIL 

turned  his  arms  without  success,  against  Persia,  and  then 
revived  an  old  claim  of  the  Egyptian  sultans  on  Cyprus. 

4.  D  After  an  heroic  resistance,  the  island  was  conquered  by  the. 

57J  Turks,  with  the  loss  of  100,000  lives.  A  league  had  beer 
formed  against  Selim  by  the  pope,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  the 
Venetians.  Their  fleet  was  too  late  to  relieve  Cyprus ;  bui 
they  encountered  in  the  gulf  of  Lepanto  the  Turkish  fleet 
which  ravaged  the  coasts  of  Italy  and  Dalmatia,  and  gained 
over  it  a  most  signal  victory.  Don  John  of  Austria  command 
ed  the  Christians ;  but  dissension  prevented  any  solid  advan 
tage  being  derived  from  it.  Next  year  the  Turks  appeare* 
with  a  still  greater  fleet,  and  the  Venetians  made  a  separat* 
peace,  by  which  they  renounced  all  claim  to  Cyprus.  Doi 
John  had  meantime  conquered  Tunis  and  Biserta;  but  thej 
were  again  recovered  by  the  Turks. 

During  the  reigns  of  the  three  following  sultans,  who  wero 
sunk  in  pleasure,  the  Turks  made  no  acquisitions  of  conse- 
quence. Under  Mohammed  III.,  the  grand  vizier  managed 
to  draw  to  himself  all  power,  by  abolishing  the  places  of  tlie 
six  viziers  who  sat  in  the  divan. 


CHAP.  IV 

TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  'y%ik/S'  WAR. 

Germany. 

1612  The  archduke  Mathias  succeeded  Rodolf  in  the  empire. 
Phis  prince  had  been  hitherto  favorable  to  the  Protestants, 
but  he  now  resolved  to  curb  them.  He  had  his  cousin  Ferdi- 
nand duke  of  Styria  chosen  iiis  successor  in  Bohemia  and 
Hungary,  and  he  made  a  family  compact  with  the  .:ourt  of 
Spain.  The  Protestants  were  alarmed ;  the  Bohemians  and 
Hungarians  had  recourse  to  arms:  the  latter  were  easily 
quelled ;  but  the  former  were  joined  by  the  Protestants  of 
Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Upper  Austria,  and  supported  by  an 
army  of  other  German  Protestants  under  count  Mansfield. 
Thus  began  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

1619  Mathias  died,  and  Ferdinand  was  raised  to  the  imperial 
throne.  The  Bohemians  deposed  him,  and  offered  tlieir  crown 
to  Frederic  V.,  elector  palatine,  who,  contrary  to  the  advice 
of  his  father-in-law,  James  I.  of  England,  accepted  the  fata) 
gift.  He  was  supported  by  all  the  Protestant  princes  of  the 
empire  except  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  by  Bethlem  Gabor 
voivode  of  Transylvania,  by  a  body  of  8000  Dutch  troops,  and 


CHAP.  IV  TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  433 

by  2400  English  volunteers.  Ferdinand  was  aided  by  the 
king  of  Spain,  by  the  archduke  Albert,  governor  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  the  Catholic  princes  of  the  empire.  Spinola 
led  24,000  men  from  the  Low  Countries,  and  ravaged  the 
palatinate ;  Frederic  was  defeated  at  Prague  by  the  duke  of  x.  d. 
Bavaria  and  general  Baquoy.  He  and  his  adherents  were  1620- 
put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire ;  Bethlem  Gabor  was  defeated 
in  Hungary;  count  Tilly  completed  the  conquest  of  the  pala- 
tinate ;  Frederic  was  degraded,  and  his  dignity  of  elector 
conferred  on  the  duke  of  Bavaria. 

A  league  was  formed,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Christian  1625 
IV.  of  Denmark,  for  the  restoration  of  the  palatine.  But  the 
troops  of  the  league  were  unable  to  stand  before  the  imperial- 
ists led  by  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  and  Christian  was  forced 
to  sue  for  peace.  Ferdinand  now  thought  the  time  was  come 
for  reducing  the  princes  and  prelates  of  the  empire  to  the 
condition  of  those  of  other  countries.  He  resolved  to  begin 
with  the  Protestants;  and  he  passed  an  edict  ordering  thera  1629. 
to  restore  all  the  church  lands,  &.c.  that  they  had  enjoyed 
since  tlie  peace  of  Passau.  The  Protestants  remonstrated  ;  a 
diet  was  held  at  Ratisbon ;  the  majority  of  the  Catholic 
princes  were  for  quieting  them  ;  the  spiritual  electors  second- 
ed the  views  of  the  emperor.  The  Protestants,  to  escape  the 
meditated  robbery,  formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden. 

Gustavus  was  a  prince  of  the  highest  military  and  civil 
talents :  he  was  animated  by  a  rational  zeal  for  the  Protest- 
ant religion,  and  he  saw  through  the  emperor's  project  of 
extending  his  dominion  over  the  Baltic.  Various  other  rea- 
sons combined  to  induce  him  to  engage  in  war.  The  cardinal 
Richelieu,  now  minister  in  France,  desirous  to  check  the 
power  of  the  house  of  Austria,  engaged  to  give  him  an  an- 
nual subsidy  of  1,200,000  livres.  Charles  I.  of  England  al- 
lowed 6000  men  to  be  raised  in  the  name  of  the  marquis  of 
Hamilton,  to  aid  the  king  of  Sweden,  and  numerous  English 
and  Scottish  volunteers  crowded  to  his  standard. 

Gustavus  entered  Pomerania.  The  Protestant  princes 
were  at  first  fearful  of  joining  him ;  but  his  well-timed  decis- 
ion towards  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  ended  their  hesitation. 
Being  joined  by  the  Saxons,  he  advanced  txjwards  Leipzig, 
where  Tilly  lay,  who  advanced  into  the  plain  of  Buitenfeld 
to  meet  him.  The  numbers  on  each  side  were  about  30,000 ; 
but  Tilly's  troops  were  all  veterans.  The  Saxons,  being  raw 
troops,  fled  at  the  first  onset:  the  skill  of  Gustavus  and  the 
valor  of  the  Swedes  gained  a  complete  victory.  ISSL 

The  king  of  Sweden  quickly  made  himself  master  of  th» 


A.  D. 


434  msTOKY  or  the  world.  part  irt 

whole  country  from  tlie  Elbe  to  the  Rhine,     The  elector  of 
Saxony  entered  Bohemia,  and  took  Prague.     Tilly,  in  dis- 

1632.  puting  the  passage  of  the  Lech  with  the  Swedes,  was  killed 
Gustavus  took  Augsburg,  marched  into  Bavaria,  and  entered 
Munich.  Wallenstein  had  meantime  recovered  Prague.  The 
king  of  Sweden  offered  him  battle  near  Niirnburg;  Wallen- 
stein declined  it :  a  furious  attack  was  for  ten  hours  made  on 
his  entrenchments,  and  the  Swedes  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss.  Soon  after,  hearmg  that  Wallenstein  had  transferred 
his  camp  to  Liitzen,  Gustavus,  though  it  was  the  depth  of 
winter,  and  the  imperial  forces  greatly  exceeded  his  in  num- 
ber, resolved  to  seek  and  engage  him.  The  battle  which  en- 
sued is  one  of  the  hardest  fought  recorded  in  history.  It 
lasted  from  day-break  till  night:  the  king  of  Sweden  fell 
in  the  midst  of  the  conflict.  Night  alone  prevented  the  vic- 
tory of  the  Swedes  being  complete. 

The  death  of  Gustavus  cast  a  gloom  over  the  Protestants ; 
they  fell  into  factions :  the  Catholics  were  elated.  But  the 
Swedish  regency  (as  Gustavus  had  left  only  one  child,  Chris- 
tina, of  seven  years)  committed  the  management  of  the  war 
to  the  chancellor  Oxenstiern,  a  man  of  great  ability,  who, 
with  the  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  generals  Banier  and 
Horn,  prosecuted  it  with  vigor.  An  event  now  occurred 
seemingly  calculated  to  advance  the  Protestant  cause.  The 
emperor,  whether  justly  or  not  is  doubtful,  suspecting  the 
fidelity  of  Wallenstein,  and  fearing  to  deprive  him  of  his 
command,  had  him  secretly  assassinated.  But  the  loss  of  his 
genius  was  supplied  by  a  large  accession  of  Spanish  and  other 
troops,  and  by  the  junction  of  the  dukes  of  Lorrain  and  Ba- 

1634.  varia.  The  imperial  troops  were  commanded  by  the  king  of 
Hungary ;  the  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  general  Horn  came 
up  with  them  near  Nordlingen,  and  a  bloody  battle  ended  in 
the  total  defeat  of  the  Swedes. 

The  German  princes  now  deserted  the  Swedes,  and  made 

1635  at  Prague  a  treaty  with  the  emperor,  in  which  he  receded 
from  his  former  demands  of  the  restitution  of  church  property. 
The  weight  of  the  war  now  fell  on  the  Swedes  and  French. 
France  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Holland,  and  war  was 
declared  against  Spain.  Richelieu  raised  five  armies,  one  of 
which  was  sent  into  Germany,  and  placed  under  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar.  None  of  these  armies  was  very  successful. 
The  imperial  general  Galas  was  opposed  to  the  duke  of 
Weimar,  and  they  fought  with  alternate  advantage.  In  Up- 
per Germany,  the  Swedes,  under  Banier,  gave  the  imperial- 

.636.  ists,  under  the  elector  of  Saxony,  a  complete  defeat  at  Wi^ 
lock 


CHAP.  IV.        TliMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS   WAR.  437 

The  emoeror  Ferdinand  II.  died,  and  was  sueceedea  by  Lis  a  o 
80i\  if  the  same  name.  The  same  line  of  policy  was  pursued,  ^^■^ 
anil  the  war  continued.     The  duke  of  Weimar  laid  siege  to  iGaS 
Rainfeld ;  an  imperial  army  advanced  to  its  relief,  and  was 
totally  defeated  by  tlie  duke :  the  town  surrendered,  as  did 
soon  after  Brisac,  and  other  places. 

While  Weimar  triumphed  on  the  Rhine,  Banier  was  equally 
successful  in  Poraerania ;  he  reduced  several  towns,  and  cut 
to  pieces  some  of  the  imperial  troops. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  next  campaign,  the  duke  and  Ban-  1639 
ier  took  measures  for  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  the  Aus- 
trian dominions.  Banier  crossed  tlie  Elbe,  beat  every  thing 
that  opposed  him,  entered  Saxony,  and  totally  defeated  the 
Saxon  army  at  Chemnitz.  He  invaded  Bohemia,  laid  the 
country  under  contribution,  fell  on  the  imperialists  under 
general  Hofskirk  at  Brandeiz,  and  pursued  them  to  the  walls 
of  Prague.  He  then  repassed  the  Elbe,  defeated  the  impe- 
rialists at  Glatz,  and  drove  the  Saxons  three  times  from  their 
camp  at  Tirn. 

But  the  hopes  of  the  Swedes  were  almost  blighted  by  the 
loss  of  the  duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  who  died  at  this  time,  in 
his  36th  year,  by  poison,  as  was  strongly  suspected.  After  a 
good  deal  of  contest  for  his  army,  it  was  finally  taken  into 
the  pay  of  the  king  of  France,  who  thus  became  master  of  a 
great  part  of  Alsatia  and  Brisgau.  Under  the  command  of 
the  duke  of  Longueville  it  joined  Banier  at  Erfurt;  but  the 
Swede  found  his,  genius  cramped  by  their  presence,  and  was 
no  longer  able  to  execute  his  bold  and  sudden  projects. 

It  was  agreed  to  attack  Piccolomini,  the  imperial  general, 
in  his  camp  at  Saltzburg.  This  being  found  impracticable, 
the  allies  separated,  and  Banier  attempted  to  penetrate  into 
Franconia.  Failing  in  this,  he  marched  through  Hesse  into 
Lunenburg.  Piccolomini  attempted  to  enter  this  duchy,  but 
was  unable  to  penetrate  it :  and  as  he  marched  for  Franconia, 
he  was  attacked  and  nearly  defeated  by  the  Weimarian  army. 

The  emperor  having  convoked  a  diet  at  Ratisbon,  Banier  16*. 
formed  a  plan  of  surprising  the  city  and  dispersing  tJie  diet. 
Having  joined  the  French  army  under  Guebriant,  they 
crossed  the  Danube  on  tlie  ice,  took  1500  of  the  imperial 
horse,  and  very  nearly  surprised  the  emperor  himself  The 
approach  of  a  thaw  disconcerted  their  plans;  but  they  tlirew 
five  hundred  shot  into  the  town,  an  insult  that  enraged  Ferdi- 
nand beyond  measure.  Attempts  at  a  pacification  were  made 
at  Hamburgh  by  the  French  and  Swedish  plenipotentiaries 
and  one  of  the  Aulic  counsellors;  but  the  emperor  refused  to 
ratif}'  the  convention. 
37* 


438  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

After  the  attempt  on  Ratisbon,  the  French  and  Swedes 
separated;  Banier  marched  through  Boliemia,  followed  by 
Piccolomini  and  Gleen.  He  conducted  his  retreat  in  a  most 
masterly  manner  to  Zickau,  where  he  was  joined  by  Gue- 
briant,  and  they  prepared  to  make  head  against  the  imperial 
ists;  but  Banier  took  a  fever  in  consequence  of  the  fatigues 
he  had  undergone,  and  died  at  Halberstadt,  in  the  41st  yeai 
of  his  age.  Torstenson,  another  of  the  pupils  of  Gustavus 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  he  left  Sweden  with  a 
large  sum  of  money  and  a  considerable  reinforcement ;  but, 
before  his  arrival,  the  allies  under  Guebriant  had  defeated 
Piccolomini  at  Wolfenbiittel.  When  Torstenson  arrived  the 
armies  separated. 
X.  R      The  next  spring,  Guebriant  totally  defeated  general  Lam 

1642.  boy,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  electorate  of  Cologne. 
Piccolomini  marched  against  Torstenson,  who  had  defeated 
the  duke  of  Saxe-Lauenburg,  and  invested  Leipzig.  The 
archduke  Leopold  and  Piccolomini  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
it ;  and  Buitenfeld  was  again  witness  to  the  triumph  of  Swe- 
dish valor. 

The  news  of  this  defeat  filled  the  imperial  court  with  con- 
sternation. Leipzig  surrendered;  but  Torstenson  failed  in 
his  attempt  on  Friedburg.  Guebriant  was  also  successful  on 
his  side. 

1643.  Conferences  for  a  peace  were  now  opened ;  but  the  deatl 
of  Louis  XIII.  and  of  Richelieu  checked  them :  cardmal  Maz 
arin,  however,  trod  in  the  footsteps  of  his  predecessor.  The 
arms  of  France  were  successful.  While  the  negotiation? 
were  pending,  Torstenson  marched  into  Holstein,  to  punish 
the  hostility  of  the  king  of  Denmark.  Christian  called  on 
the  emperor,  who  sent  Galas  thither ;  but  Galas  feared  to  en- 
gage the  Swedes.  France  then  mediated  a  peace  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  The  French,  under  Turenne,  were 
successful  against  the  Bavarians ;  the  voivode  of  Transylvania 
invaded  Hungary  ;  and  the  imperial  army  there  under  Gotz 
was  utterly  ruined.     A  similar  fate  befell  that  under  Galas. 

W5.  Torstenson  invaded  Bohemia;  a  large  army  under  Galas, 
Hasfeld,  and  others,  was  collected  near  Thabor.  The  Swe- 
dish general  decoyed  them  from  their  advantageous  position, 
and  completely  defeated  them.  Every  place  submitted ;  the 
imperial  family  fled  from  Vienna :  Brinn,  however,  held  out 
against  the  Swedes. 

The  Bavarians  under  Merci  defeated  Turenne  at  Marien- 
dal ;  Turenne  was  reinforced  by  8000  men,  under  the  duke 
d'Enghien,  and  gave  battle  to  the  Bavarians  on  the  plain  of 
Nordlingen,  which  had  been  so  fatal  to  the  Swedes,    After  a 


CHAP.  IV.      TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  439 

dreadful  conflict,  victory  declared  for  the  French,  with  the 
loss  of  4000  men.  The  elector  of  Saxony,  unable  to  check 
the  progress  of  the  Swedish  general  Koningsmark,  concluded 
a  truce  for  six  months.  The  latter  joined  Torstenson,  who 
had,  in  spite  of  the  archduke,  carried  his  depredations  to  the 
gates  of  Vienna.  They  agreed  to  lay  siege  to  Prague  ;  but 
the  archduke  secured  that  city  against  them ;  and  Torsten- 
son, who  was  dreadfully  afflicted  with  the  gout,  returning  to 
Sweden,  was  succeeded  by  Vrangel,  who  ably  sustained  the 
glory  of  the  Swedish  arms.  The  French  and  Swedes  were 
everywhere  successful ;  the  elector  of  Bavaria  and  other 
princes  were  forced  to  make  separate  peaces  with,  them ;  tlie 
emperor  alone  was  opposed  to  them ;  and  though  tlie  elector  a.  d. 
of  Bavaria  had  again  joined  him,  the  victory  of  Zummerhau-  1648 
sen,  gained  by  Turenne  and  Vrangel,  and  the  invasion  of 
Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  compelled  him  to  think  at  last  seriously 

of  peace. 

Negotiations  had  long  been  going  on  at  Osnaburg  and 
Miinster.  At  last  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  signed 
at  the  latter  place  on  the  24th  Oct.  1648.  By  this  celebrated 
treaty  France  obtained  Alsatia,  Brisac,  Metz,  Verdun,  and 
other  territories ;  Sweden  got  Upper  Pomerania,  Stetin,  the 
Isle  of  Riagen,  Bremen,  &c.  with  three  votes  at  the  diet; 
compensation  was  made  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  and 
the  duke  of  Mecklenburg  for  the  loss  of  these  territories ;  the 
Upper  Palatinate  and  the  electoral  rank  remained  with  the 
duke  of  Bavaria ;  Switzerland  was  declared  independent  of 
the  empire;  the  pacification  of  Passau  was  fully  confirmed; 
Lutherans  and  Catholics  were  placed  on  the  same  footing ; 
the  imperial  chamber  was  to  consist  of  twenty-six  Catliolic 
and  twenty-four  Protestant  members ;  six  Protestants  were 
admitted  into  the  Aulic  council;  an  equal  number  of  each 
party  was  to  be  summoned  to  the  diet ;  but  in  cases  where  it 
concerned  either  religion  alone,  only  deputies  of  that  religion 
should  be  called. 

France. 

Louis  Xin.  being  a  minor,  his  mother,  Mary  of  Medici,  a  161 C 
weak,  bigoted  woman,  was  declared  regent.     She  was  gov- 
erned entirely  by  an  Italian,  named  Concini,  and  his  wife. 
Sully  retired ;  new  maxims  were  adopted ;  a  double  marriage 
and  union  with  Spain  was  projected ;  and  the  ruin  of  the  1613 
I'rotestants  meditated.     The  nobility,  headed  by  the  prince 
of  Conde,  revolted;  they  were  appeased  by  gifts;  they  re-  1615 
volted  again,  and  were  again  appeased  in  the  same  way. 

Luines,  the  favorite  of  Louis,  took  advantage  of  his  influ- 


440  HISTORY  Oir  TUE  world.  part  III 

ence  over  him  to  induce  the  young  prince  to  seize  the  reine 
A.  D.  of  government  Louis  ordered  Concini  to  be  arrested ;  the 
IC'1'7  captain  of  the  guards  shot  him,  under  pretext  of  resistance ; 
his  wife,  the  high-spirited  Galligai,  was  condemned  to  death 
for  sorcery  and  magic ;  the  regent  was  exiled  to  Blois.  Lui- 
nes,  from  a  page,  was  raised  to  the  highest  rank  and  offices 
in  tiie  state.  A  conspiracy,  headed  by  the  duke  of  Epemon 
released  the  queen-mother.  Guided  by  the  great  Richelieu, 
she  caballed  against  the  court,  which  was  obliged  to  enter 
into  treaties  advantageous  to  her  and  her  party.  She  procured 
Richelieu  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  a  seat  in  the  council. 
620.  Louis,  having  united  Beam  to  the  crown,  attempted,  though 
the  people  were  Protestants,  to  re-establish  there  the  Catholic 
religion.  The  Huguenots  were  alarmed ;  they  assembled  at 
Rochelle,  and  determined  to  throw  off  their  allegiance,  and 
to    form  a  republic.     Luines,    now  constable,   took  arms. 

1621.  Having  seduced,  by  bribes  and  promises,  the  duke  of  Bouillon, 
and  other  of  their  leaders,  he  laid  siege  to  Montauban  with 
25,000  men.  The  place  was  gallantly  defended  by  the  mar- 
quis la  Force,  and  Luines  was  forced  to  retire  with  disgrace. 
He  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  office 
of  CMistable  by  the  brave  Lesdiguieres,  who  had  renounced 
Calvinism.  The  Protestants  were  led  by  the  duke  of  Rohan 
and  his  brother  Soubise.  The  latter  was  defeated  by  the 
king  in  person,  who  laid  siege  to  Montpellier,  which  was  de- 

1622.  fended  as  bravely  as  Montauban.  A  peace  was  made,  and  the 
edict  of  Nantes  confirmed. 

The  haughty  Richelieu  became  now  prime  minister 
There  were  three  parties  whom  he  resolved  to  humble ;  the 
nobility  of  France,  the  Huguenots,  and  the  house  of  Austria. 
To  accomplish  these  objects,  he,  in  spite  of  the  pope  and  th'^- 
king  of  Spain,  concluded  a  marriage  between  Charles  prince 
of  Wales  and  the  king's  sister  Henrietta,  as  also  an  alliance 
between  the  two  crowns  and  the  United  Provinces.  A  war 
with  Spain  was  the  consequence,  in  which  a  French  army, 
united  with  the  Venetians  and  the  duke  of  Savoy,  took  the 
625  Valteline,  and  restored  it  to  the  Grisons ;  but  Spinola  reduced 
Breda,  and  the  English  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Cadiz- 

The  Huguenots  rebelled,  and  were  now  encouraged  by 
England.  The  duke  of  Buckingham  appeared  before  Ro- 
chelle with  7000  nien ;  but  he  had  laid  his  measures  so  ill, 
that  the  citizens  refused  to  admit  him,  and  after  an  ill-con- 
ducted attempt  on  the  isle  of  Rhe,  he  returned  home  with 
disgrace.  Richelieu  laid  siege  to  Rochelle ;  and  having  run 
a  mole  across  the  harbor,  compelled  it  to  surrender.  The 
duke  of  Rohan  defended  himself  with  vigor  in  Languedoc 


Death  of  CondnL 


CHAP   IV.  TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  443 

but  as  England  liad  made  peace,  he  was  forced  to  come  to  a.  dl 
terms.    The  Protestants  were  continued  in  the  enjoyment  of  1629 
all  that  had  been  secured  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  only  they 
were  deprived  of  their  fortified  towns. 

Having  humbled  the  Protestants  at  home,  and  thereby 
brought  the  whole  kingdom,  nobility  and  all,  under  the  control 
of  the  crown,  Richelieu  resolved,  in  furtherance  of  his  re- 
maining object,  to  aid  the  Protestants  in  Germany ;  and  he 
t!)rmed  the  secret  alliance  which  we  have  already  noticed.* 
After  the  treaty  of  Prague,  he  openly  joined  the  Swedes. 
Meantime  he  ruled  France  with  a  rod  of  iron :  the  queen- 
mother  was  banished,  her  son  Gaston  duke  of  Orleans  obliged 
to  beg  his  life,  and  the  marshals  Montmorency  and  Merillas 
publicly  executed.  In  defiance  of  all  his  enemies,  Richelieu 
retained  his  power  till  his  death,  in  1642,  at  the  moment 
when  the  arms  of  France  and  Sweden  had  completely  hum- 
bled the  pride  of  the  house  of  Austria.  The  minister  died 
on  the  4th  of  December:  his  royal  master  followed  him  on 
the  14th  of  the  ensuing  May.  Louis  had  been  married  to 
Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain. 

Spain. 

The  chief  domestic  incident  that  distinguished  the  reign 
of  Philip  III.  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes.  Impelled 
by  the  inquisition,  and  by  the  advice  of  his  feeble  and  bigoted 
minister,  the  duke  of  Lerma,  Philip  issued  an  edict,  com- 
manding all  his  Mohammedan  subjects  to  quit  the  kingdom  1611 
within  thirty  days.  In  despair  the  Moors  took  arms:  they 
wore  subdued,  and  a  million  of  industrious  subjects  driven 
nut  of  Spain,  whose  fate  it  is,  to  be  to  Europe  a  standing  ex- 
ample of  the  evils  of  civil  and  religious  despotism.  During 
tliis  reign,  attempts  were  made  to  extend  the  Spanish  power 
in  Italy. 

Pliilip  rV.  and  his  minister  Olivarez  were  both  men  of  1621 
more  energy  than  their  predecessors.  It  was  determined  to 
form  the  closest  alliance  with  the  emperor,  and  to  attempt 
the  1  eduction  of  the  United  Provinces,  tlie  truce  with  whom 
was  expired.  Notwithstanding,  however,  these  magnificent 
projectj,  the  power  of  Spain  continued  still  to  decline  in  this 
reign.  The  Spanish  infantry  was  cut  to  pieces  on  the  plains 
of  Rocroi  by  the  duke  d'Enghien  with  an  inferior  force  ;  the 
(Catalans  rebelled;  the  Portuguese  threw  off  the  yoke;  and 
.'he  independence  of  the  Dutch  was  fully  acknowledged.  The  1643 
worm  was  at  the  heart  of  the  power  of  Spain. 


444  HISTORY  OF  TUB  WORLD.  PART  III 

Portugal. 

The  Portuguese  had  long  been  irritated  by  the  despotism 
tliey  were  subject  to.  On  the  revolt  of  the  Catalans,  a  law 
was  passed  to  compel  the  Portuguese  nobles  to  take  arms  for 
their  reduction.  A  plot  long  formed  now  broke  out.  Olivarez 
had  called  away  the  Spanish  garrison  from  Lisbon.  The 
duchess  of  Mantua,  styled  the  vice-queen,  was  driven  away, 
and  the  grandson  of  the  duke  of  Braganza,  who  had  been  de- 
prived of  his  right  by  Philip  II.,  was  proclaimed  king,  under 
the  title  of  John  IV.  All  Portugal  acknowledged  him ;  ships 
were  sent  to  the  foreign  settlements,  and  all  expelled  their 
A.  D  Spanish  governors.  Brazil  was  recovered  from  the  Dutch, 
640.  and  Portugal  became  once  more  independent. 

Italy. 

The  dominions  of  Spain  in  Northern  Italy,  were  divided 
from  those  of  the  emperor  by  the  Valteline  and  Venice.    Be- 

1618.  domar,  the  Spanish  ambassador  to  the  latter,  formed,  in  con- 
junction with  the  governor  of  Milan  and  the  viceroy  of  Na- 
ples, a  nefarious  project  for  murdering  the  senate,  and  getting 
possession  of  Venice ;  but  the  senate,  discovering  in  time  the 
atrocious  plot,  executed  the  majority  of  the  conspirators. 
620.  Spain  was  more  fortunate  and  less  guilty  in  the  Valteline,  the 
Catholic  inhabitants  of  which  rose  on  and  massacred  their 
Protestant  countrymen,  and  placed  themselves  under  her  pro- 
tection. 

The  emperor  and  king  of  Spain  each  attempted  to  get  the 
duchy  of  Mantua,  after  the  death  of  the  duke  without  heirs; 

.630.  but,  Richelieu  entered  Italy  with  an  army,  and  obliged  the 
emperor  to  grant  the  investiture  to  Charles  Gonzaga,  duke  of 
Nevers. 

England — The  Civil  War. 

An  eventful  period  now  commences  in  England.  A  new 
1603  d)masty  fills  the  throne,  and  the  grand  struggle  begins  be- 
tween liberty  and  absolute  power.  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
son  of  Mary,  and  descended  from  the  eldest  daughter  of  Henry 
VII.,  was,  on  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  placed  by  the  free-will 
and  choice  of  the  English  nation  on  her  royal  seat.  This 
monarch  was  possessed  of  learning  and  abilities  rather  above 
the  common  rate;  but  he  w^as  pedantic,  mean,  and  pusillani- 
mous, shamefully  subservient  to  unworthy  favorites,  and  in 
his  inglorious  love  of  peace  careless  of  the  national  honor. 
In  the  reign  of  this  feeble  prince,  the  English  nation  first 
learned  to  listen  to  the  doctrines  of  the  divine  and  ini'efeasi- 


Junes  yi.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  Bnglanl. 


CHAP.  IV.         TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  447 

ble  rights  of  kings;  then,  too,  the  church  began  to  deprt 
from  the  principles  of  the  reformers,  and  some  of  her  divinea 
to  approximate  in  their  doctrines  to  those  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  so  generally  odious  to  the  nation.  Every  thing,  in 
short,  was  done,  as  it  were,  to  prepare  the  materials  of  the 
coming  conflagration. 

In  the  reign  of  James,  the  nation  took  greatly  to  trade  and 
maritime  enterprise,  and  increased  rapidly  in  wealth,  intelli- 
gence, and  love  of  freedom.  Public  events  were  few.  The 
most  remarkable  was  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  a  plan  formed  in 
the  beginning  of  the  king's  reign  by  a  few  desperate  Catho- 
lics to  blow  up  the  king  and  parliament,  but  fortunately  dis- 
covered in  time.  The  most  laudable  act  of  James's  reign 
was  the  settlement  and  plantation  of  the  north  of  Ireland. 

Charles  I.,  of  a  harsh  and  arbitrary  temper,  endeavored  to  a.  d 
put  into  practice  the  speculative  tenets  of  his  father.  He  saw  1^25 
not  the  state  of  the  nation.  English  liberty  had  made  great 
progress  under  the  Plantagenets :  circumstances  enabled  the 
Tudors  nearly  to  crush  it ;  but  with  the  growth  of  wealth, 
and  the  freedom  of  religious  opinion,  the  spirit  of  the  nation 
had  recovered  its  vigor.  Charles  was  suspected,  on  account 
cf  his  marriage  with  Henrietta,  sister  to  the  king  of  France, 
a  bigoted  Catholic,  and  his  partiality  towards  the  professors  of 
jhat  relisjion,  of  a  secret  design  against  Protestantism.  The 
Pu)  itans,  now  a  numerous  party,  were  bitterly  hostile  to  the 
church  of  England ;  and  the  persecuting  violence  and  silly 
superstition  of  archbishop  Laud  augmented  their  rancor.  Re- 
fused the  necessary  supplies  by  the  parliament,  without  giv- 
ing some  security  for  liberty,  the  king  had  recourse  to  all  the 
illegal  modes  of  taxation  employed  by  his  predecessors.  Ton- 
nage and  poundage  were  levied ;  all  the  oppressions  of  feudal- 
ism renewed  ;  for  more  than  ten  years  no  parliament  assem- 
bled. An  attempt  being  made  to  force  Episcopacy  upon  the  1638 
Scots,  that  nation  took  arms,  and  entered  into  the  solemn 
LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT.  A  drcadful  rebellion  broke  eut  in  16fl 
Ireland,  in  which  thousands  of  Protestants  were  barbarously 
massacred  Viy  the  Catliolics.  The  Long  Parliament,  which 
the  king  had  assembled,  advanced  every  day  in  their  de- 
mands on  him,  and  testified  a  spirit  of  determined  hostility  to 
the  church.  The  impeachment,  and  illegal  and  unjust,  though 
well-merited,  condemnation  of  Strafford,  the  king's  ablest  and 
most  obnoxious  minister,  showed  him  the  spirit  Ij  which  they 
were  actuated.  Charles,  though  reluctantly,  still  yielded  to 
their  demands ;  but  concession  only  produced  further  assump- 
tion. An  invincible  distrust  of  the  king's  sincerity,  for  whichf 
mdecd,  there  was  abundant  reason,  haunted  the  minds  of  the 


448  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

i.  D  parliament,  and  prevented  all  accommodation.    Both  parties 
642.  finally  determined  on  the  appeal  to  the  sword. 

The  king  was  supported  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  an- 
cient nobility  and  gentry  of  the  realm,  many  of  whom  had 
at  first  been  zealous  in  checking  the  royal  excesses ;  but  now, 
seeing  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the  commons,  resolved  to 
sustain  the  throne.  The  Catholics  were  naturally  unanimous 
in  his  favor ;  the  western  counties  were  in  general  well  af 
fected  to  him.  The  chief  strength  of  the  parliament  lay  in 
the  cities  and  great  towns,  and  the  eastern  counties,  and  the 
lower  orders  were  mostly  on  their  side.  It  is  idle  to  seek 
to  extenuate  the  faults  on  either  side ;  to  represent  the  one 
party  as  the  champions  of  right  and  justice,  the  other  as  tlie 
inveterate  foes  of  both.  Each  had  much,  indeed,  to  answer 
for:  it  was  a  struggle,  the  probable  termination  of  which 
would  be  tyranny  or  anarchy ;  yet  impartiality  will  say,  that 
the  king  was  left  no  alternative,  and  that  the  balance  of  guilt 
was  rather  on  the  side  of  the  parliament.  Certainly,  neither 
party  is  entitled  to  our  unqualified  approbation.  But,  in  truth, 
the  Civil  War  was  inevitable ;  it  was  the  almost  necessary 
result  of  the  state  of  opinion  then  prevalent ;  it  was  the  tem- 
pest which  was  to  purify  the  political  atmosphere. 

The  royal  standard  was  raised  at  Nottingham  (Aug.  22). 
The  first  battle  was  fought  at  Edgehill.  In  the  course  of 
three  years,  numerous  engagements  occurred  between  the 
troops  of  the  king  and  those  of  the  parliament,  now  joined  by 
the  Scots.  Lansdown  Hill,  Round  way  Down,  Newbury, 
Nantwich,  Marston  Moor,  and  other  places,  witnessed  the 
successes  and  reverses  of  either  party.     At  length  the  king 

1645.  received  a  final  and  fatal  overthrow  at  Naseby  (June  14),  and 
unable  any  longer  to  make  head,  he  fled  for  protection  to  the 

1647.  camp  of  the  Scots  at  Newark.  He  was  by  them  dishonorably 
surrendered  to  the  parliament.  After  a  confinement  of  some 
time,  he  was,  by  means  of  the  sect  of  the  Independents,  who 
were  all-powerful  in  the  army,  and  were,  therefore,  now  the 

649.  prevailing  party,  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and  beheaded ; 
a  sentence,  even  if  morally  just,  which  it  undoubtedly  was 
not,  flagrantly  illegal ;  a  sentence  that  filled  Europe  with 
amazement;  and  that,  even  if  passed  with  purer  motives  than 
it  was,  by  most  of  his  judges,  was  an  act  of  useless  and  per- 
nicious folW     A  republic  was  now  established. 

Holland. 

After  the  truce  of  1609,  the  United  Provinces  were  agi- 
tated by  religious  dissensions.  The  opinions  of  Calvin  were 
maintained  in  all  their  rigor  by  the  followers  of  Gomer :  ■ 


I31AP.  IV.      TIMES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  449 

milder  system  was  advocated  by  Arminius.  Prince  Maurice 
sided  with  the  former ;  the  patriotic  functionary  Barneveldt, 
who  saw  through  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  prince,  sup- 
ported the  latter.  The  Gomerists  prevailed ;  the  Arminian 
preachers  were  banished.  Barneveldt,  at  the  age  of  72,  was 
brought  to  the  block,  under  the  base  and  iniquitous  charge  of  a.  ix 
'vexing  the  church  of  God."  But  the  people  saw  the  object  16151 
of  Maurice,  and  groans  and  murmurs,  and  the  name  of  Bar- 
neveldt, attended  him  wherever  he  went 

The  Dutch  were,  during  this  period,  usually  allied  with 
France  against  Spain.  They  extended  their  trade  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies.  In  the  former  they  founded  Batavia, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  their  future  empire  in  those  re- 
gions. 

Russia. 

That  most  extraordinary  tyrant,  Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible,  1598 
was  succeeded  by  his  only  remaining  son,  Fedor,  with  whom 
ended  the  house  of  Ruric.  The  boyars  chose  Boris,  the 
brother  of  tlie  empress.  This  prince  governed  well ;  but  an 
impostor  appeared,  pretending  to  be  Dmitri,  the  eldest  son  of 
Ivan.  After  the  deatii  of  Boris,  the  pseudo-Dmitri  gained 
the  throne,  and  his  reign  was  praiseworthy.  Suspected  of  a 
fondness  for  Polish  manners,  he  was  murdered  by  his  boyars. 

Several  false  Dmitries  appeared.  At  length,  the  nobles 
assembled  to  choose  a  sovereign.  Three  days  they  and  the 
people  fasted,  and  called  upon  God,  and  they  then  appointed  1613 
Michaila  Romanov,  son  of  the  archbishop  Pliilocetus,  and 
grandson,  by  his  mother,  of  the  Tzar  Ivan,  a  boy  of  but  fifteen 
years.  The  new  Tzar  spent  his  reign  in  restoring  Russia  to 
its  former  state  of  power  and  order.  Ilis  son  Alexei  extended 
the  relations  of  the  empire.  He  first  sent  an  embassy  to 
China,  and  made  Tobolsk  the  staple  of  the  Chinese  trade.        1645 

Turkey  and  Persia. 

The  Turkish  sultans  Ahmed,  Mustafa,  Osman,  Moorad  IV., 
and  Ibrahim  were,  all  but  the  ill-fated  Osman  and  Moorad,  sunk 
in  pleasure  and  sensual  indulgence,  and  took  little  part  in  the 
affairs  of  Europe.  Moorad  conquered  Bagdad,  and  restrained 
the  power  of  the  janizaries. 

Persia,  under  the  rule  of  Abbas  the  Great,  attained  to  con- 
siderable power.     This  truly  great  monarch  was  victorious  i582 
in  his  wars  against  the  Ottomans  and  the  Usbegs ;  and  he  es- 
tablished a  degree  of  tranquillity  throughout  his  dominions,  to 
which  Persia  had  long  been  a  stranger.     After  his  death  the  169 
Persian  power  began  to  decline. 
3S* 


450  mSTORY  OJ  XHE  WOKIiD.  PAKT  111 

CHAP.  V. 

TIMES    OF    LOUIS  XIV. 

France,  to  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees. 

A.  a  Louis  XIV.  was  a  minor,  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  re- 
648.  gent,  and  cardinal  Mazarin  minister.  De  Retz  (afterwards 
cardinal)  coadjutor  archbishop  of  Paris,  a  man  of  unprincipled 
ambition,  endeavored  to  excite  the  nobility  and  people  against 
the  minister.  The  parliament  of  Paris  joined  him.  The 
queen  was  insulted  whenever  she  appeared.  Mazarin  or- 
dered the  president  and  some  of  the  most  factious  members  of 
the  parliament  to  be  arrested.     The  populace  rose,  and  barri- 

I5T7.  cadoed  the  streets  till  the  prisoners  were  released.  Such  was 
the  commencement  of  the  celebrated  Fronde. 

The  parliament  of  Paris  proclaimed  the  cardinal  a  public 
enemy.  The  prince  of  Conti,  the  duke  of  Bouillon,  and  other 
nobles,  joined  them.  Other  parliaments  followed  their  exam- 
ple. The  great  prince  of  Conde,  at  the  request  of  the  court, 
dispersed  the  undisciplined  troops  the  parliament  had  raised. 
Matters  were  settled  for  a  time ;  but  Conde,  Conti,  and  others 
were  afterwards,  by  the  advice  of  de  Retz,  arrested  at  the 
council-table.  Their  partisans  took  arms :  the  duke  of  Or- 
leans, uncle  to  the  king,  set  himself  at  their  head.  The  car- 
dinal was  obliged  to  fly  to  Cologne.  By  the  intrigues  of  him 
and  de  Retz  the  duke  of  Bouillon  and  his  brother  Turenne 
were  detached  from  the  malcontents,  and  Mazarin  returned, 

1651.  escorted  by  6000  men. 

Conde  threw  himself  on  the  protection  of  Spain,  and  en- 
tered Paris  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Spanish  troops.  Turenne 
led  Louis  within  sight  of  his  capital,  and  these  two  great  gen- 
erals engaged  each  other  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Antoine.  The 
combat  was  long ;  but  the  heroism  of  the  daughter  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  who  ordered  the  guns  of  the  BastUle  to  fire  on  the 
king's  troops,  decided  it  in  favor  of  Conde. 

1653.      At  length  the  king  dismissed  Mazarin,  and  the  nation  re- 

1655.  turned  to  its  allegiance.  Mazarin  was,  however,  afterwards 
recalled,  the  nobles  were  punished,  and  the  parliament  hum- 
bled. 

The  war  with  Spain  had  still  continued ;  it  was  now  prose- 
cuted with  vigor.    Turenne  and  Conde  were  opposed  to  each 

1656.  other.  At  Arras  and  Valenciennes  the  talents  of  the  rivals 
were  fully  displayed.  The  balance  was  even  between  the 
two  parties ;  but  Mazarin  formed  an  alliance  witli  Cromvajl, 


Oliver  Cromwell. 


OUAP.  V.  TIMES  OF  LOL'IS  Al    .  453 

rfho  now  governed  England,  and  tlie  beam  was  turned.  Dun- 
kirk was  taken  from  Spain,  and  given  to  England.  Ypres, 
Gravelines,  and  several  other  towns,  surrendered  to  the  arms  a.  j 
of  France.  Spain  saw  the  necessity  of  peace.  Mazarin  and  1659 
Don  Louis  de  Haro,  the  Spanish  minister,  met  in  tlie  Isle  of 
Pheasants,  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  settled  the  terms  of  a  peace. 
Philip  agreed  to  pardon  the  Catalans,  and  renounce  all  claim 
to  Alsace ;  Louis  to  pardon  Conde.  The  succession  of  Juliers 
was  secured  to  the  duke  of  Neuburg,  and  the  infanta  Maria 
Theresa  was  given  in  marriage  to  Louis. 

Mazarin  died  within  less  than  a  year  after  concluding  the  1661 
peace  of  the  Pyrenees;  and  Louis,  now  21  years  of  age,  took 
the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 

England,  to  the  Restoration. 

The  parliament  now  governed  England,  and  the  strength 
the  nation  exhibited  at  this  period  is  astonishing.  Cromwell 
led  an  army  into  Ireland,  and  rapidly  overran  and  conquered  1649 
the  whole  kingdom.  The  Scots  having  proclaimed  Charles 
II.,  Cromwell  invaded  and  reduced  that  kingdom  also.  Charles  1650 
entered  England  with  a  Scottish  army ;  but  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester put  an  end  to  his  hopes.  Cromwell  now  dissolved  the 
parliament,  and  governed  alone,  under  the  title  of  Protector.  1653 
Success  attended  all  his  measures  of  foreign  policy.  He  beat 
the  Dutch,  and  forced  their  ships  to  strike  their  flag  to  the 
English.  He  took  Jamaica  from  the  Spaniards.  Mazarin 
acknowledged  him.  The  Venetians  and  Swiss  sought  his 
friendship.  The  northern  courts  respected  his  power.  But 
at  home  his  government  was  rigorous  in  the  extreme ;  and 
the  despotism  of  Charles  I.  had  never  ventured  on  the  tyr- 
anny and  injustice  exercised  by  this  chief  of  tJie  republic. 

On  the  death  of  Cromwell,  his  son  Richard  succeeded  him  1658 
in  the  protectorate;  but  he  soon  resigned  his  dignity.  The 
eyes  of  the  nation,  wearied  of  change  and  turmoil,  were  turned 
to  the  ancient  line  of  their  princes.  General  Monk,  who 
commanded  in  Scotland,  marched  to  London ;  and  the  parlia- 
ment, reassembled  under  his  protection,  restored  Charles  II.  166a 
to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Wars  till  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen. 

The  Dutch  had,  on  the  death  of  William  IL  of  Orange,  1576 
abolished  the  dignity  of  stadtholder.  The  family  of  Orange 
bein^  connected  with  the  royal  family  of  England,  Charles  II. 
wished  to  restore  his  nephew,  William  III.,  to  the  power  of 
his  ancestors,  and  he  also  hoped  to  make  money  by  a  war. 
The  people  of  England  were  jealous  of  the  commercial  wealth 


454  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  HI. 

A.  D.  of  Holland.     War  was,  therefore,  declared  under  false  pre- 

1664.  texts.  Squadrons  were  sent  out  to  Africa  and  America.  De 
Witt,  pensionary  of  Holland,  who  directed  the  republic,  fore- 
seeing the  designs  of  England,  had  formed  an  alliance  with 
France.     A  large  fleet  was  collected  under  admiral  Opdam. 

1665.  It  engaged  the  English  fleet  under  the  duke  of  York,  but 
was  totally  defeated.  Louis  XTV.  and  the  king  of  Denmark 
now  came  forward  to  aid  the  Dutch.  The  following  year 
two  most  desperate  sea-fights  took  place :  the  first  lasted  four 
days,  and  the  fleets  separated,  leaving  victory  undecided. 
The  next  month  the  Dutch  were  defeated.  Both  parties 
growing  weary  of  the  war,  negotiations  were  opened  at 
Breda ;  but  de  Witt  refused  to  consent  to  a  suspension  of  hos- 
tilities. A  Dutch  fleet  sailed  up  the  Thames,  and  burned  sev- 

I  CtGl.  eral  ships  of  war  at  Chatham ;  and  de  Ruyter,  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, rode  triumphant  in  the  Channel.  The  treaty  of  Breda 
was  now  concluded,  in  which  England  receded  fi-om  some  of 
her  demands.  She  retained  New- York,  which  she  had  con- 
quered ;  she  ceded  her  settlement  at  Surinam. 

Louis  XrV.  now  commenced  his  career  of  war,  the  struggle 
between  absolute  monarchy  and  constitutional  liberty.  On 
the  death   of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  who  left  only  one  son, 

1665.  Charles,  a  sickly  infant,  Louis,  who,  though  at  his  marriage 
with  the  infanta  he  had  renounced  all  title  to  the  succession 
of  any  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions,  still  secretly  cherished 
the  hope  of  obtaining  them,  had  retracted  the  renunciation, 
and  even  laid  claim,  in  right  of  his  wife,  to  the  immediate 
possession  of  the  duchy  of  Brabant.  This  claim  could  only 
be  decided  by  arms.     At  the  head  of  40,000  men  Louis  en- 

1667.  tered  Flanders.  Tournay,  Douay,  Lisle,  and  other  towns  sur- 
rendered. Another  campaign,  it  was  feared,  would  make 
him  master  of  the  Low  Countries.  All  Europe  was  alarmea. 
A  triple  alliance  was  formed  between  England,  Holland,  and 

1668  Sweden,  to  oblige  Louis  to  adhere  to,  and  Spain  to  accept  of, 
the  terms  offered  by  the  former  at  the  end  of  the  first  cam- 
paign. France  and  Spain  were  equally  displeased  at  this 
treaty,  but  agreed  to  treat;  and  a  treaty  was  negotiated  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  which  Spain  allowed  Louis  to  retain  the 
towns  he  had  taken,  and  which  he  had  had  strongly  fortified 
by  the  great  Vauban.  By  a  treaty  with  Portugal  at  this  time, 
Spain  acknowledged  the  independence  of  that  crown. 

Louis  was  bent  on  revenge  on  Holland.     A  secret  tiCAiy 

670.  was  made  with  the  kmg  of  England,  whom  Louis  engaged  to 
assist  in  his  project  of  establishing  popery  and  despotism  in 
that  country,  if  he  aided  in  subduing  the  United  Provinces 
and  Louis  prepared  to  invade  the  States.     As  he  could  not 


CHAP.  V.  TIMES  OF  L0UI3  XIV.  455 

obtain  a  passage  through  the  Spanish  provinces,  he,  contra.r7 
to  the  faitlj  of  treaties,  seized  on  the  duchy  of  Lorrain. 
Cliarles.  who  was  now  become  the  pensioner  of  France,  ob- 
tained under  false  pretexts  a  large  grant  from  his  parlian.ent ; 
and  a  base  and  unsuccessfiil  attempt  was  made  on  the  Dutch 
Smyrna  fleet,  while  the  treaty  subsisted  with  the  States.  At  a.  d 
length  both  monarchs,  under  the  most  frivolous  pretences,  de-  1673 
dared  war  against  the  United  Provinces.  The  combined 
fleets  of  France  and  England  were  more  than  100  sail.  A 
French  army  of  120,000  men  appeared  on  the  frontiers.  The 
States  put  forth  all  their  energies.  The  command  of  the 
irmy  was  intrusted  to  William  III.  of  Orange,  now  23  years 
of  age.  De  Witt  and  de  Ruyter  attended  to  the  navy.  The 
latter  put  to  sea  with  90  sail  of  large,  and  40  of  small  vessels, 
to  take  vengeance  on  the  English  for  their  perfidious  attempt 
on  the  Smyrna  fleet.  The  English  had  been  joined  by  the 
French  ;  and  their  combined  force  was  120  sail,  when  de 
Ruyter  came  in  sight  of  them  in  Southwold  Bay.  A  despe- 
rate engagement  terminated  in  no  decisive  advantage  to 
either  side. 

Louis  divided  his  army  into  three  bodies,  under  Turenne, 
Conde  and  Chamilli,  and  Luxemburg:  the  bishop  of  Miinster 
and  the  elector  of  Cologne  were  his  allies.  Several  towns 
surrendered.  He  passed  the  Rhine.  Nimeguen  and  Utrecht 
opened  their  gates.  All  the  provinces  but  Holland  and  Zea- 
land submitted.  Holland  opened  its  sluices,  and  inundated 
the  country;  but  the  coimcils  of  the  state  were  distracted  by 
the  Orange  and  republican  parties.  Offers  were  made  to 
surrender  Maestricht  and  all  the  frontier  towns  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  seven  provinces,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
war.  They  were  haughtily  rejected.  The  prince  of  Orange 
was  declared  stadtholdcr,  and  in  a  moment  of  popular  frenzy 
the  great  and  good  de  Witt  and  his  brother  were  torn  to 
pieces.  It  was  resolved  never  to  submit:  ships  were  even 
prepared  to  carry  these  modern  PhocaBans  to  the  East  Indies, 
if  unable  to  retain  their  country  and  liberty. 

The  combined  fleets,  with  an  army  on  board,  approached  1673 
the  coast  of  Holland.  In  a  manner  almost  miraculous  they 
were  carried  out  to  sea,  and  afterwards  prevented  landing 
their  forces  by  violent  storms.  Those  who  regarded  this  as 
the  interference  of  providence  cannot  justly  be  accused  of  su- 
perstition. Meanwhile,  Louis  had  returned  to  Versailles.  The 
emperor  and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  had  shown  a  dispo- 
lidon  to  assist  the  States.  The  king  of  Spain  had  sent  them 
mme  forces,  and  the  aspect  of  their  affairs  was  brightening 

TImj  Hutch  fleet,  under  van  Tromp  and  de  Ruyter,  engaged 


456  HISTORY  0¥  THE  WORLD.  PART  m 

the  combined  French  and  English  fleets  under  prince  Rupert, 
in  three  actions,  off  the  coast  of  Holland.  They  were,  aa 
usual,  long  and  obstinately  fought,  and,  £is  usual,  undecisive. 
The  French  took  Maestricht.  The  prince  of  Orange  re- 
took Naerden.  The  imperialists  under  Montecuculi  having 
vainly  attempted  the  passage  of  the  Rhine,  laid  siege  to  Bonn. 
The  prince  of  Orange  joined  them,  Bonn  surrendered.  The 
greater  part  of  the  electorate  of  Cologne  was  conquered ;  and 
the  communication  being  thus  cut  off  between  France  and 
the  United  Provinces,  Louis  was  obliged  to  recall  his  forces 
and  abandon  his  conquests.  A  congress  held  at  Cologne 
could  settle  nothing.  The  house  of  Austria  was  terrified  at 
the  projects  of  Louis ;  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain 
signed  a  treaty  with  the  Dutch,  and  Spain  declared  war. 
j^,  D.      Charles,  unable  to  get  supplies  from  his  parliament,  made 

1674.  peace  with  Holland.  Louis  also  was  desirous  of  peace ;  but 
the  allies  were  eager  for  war.  Charles  in  vain  tried  to  me- 
diate. In  the  next  campaign  Louis  exerted  great  energy. 
At  the  head  of  one  of  his  armies  he  conquered  Franche- 
Comte.  A  furious  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought  at 
Seneffe  in  Brabant,  between  Turenne  and  the  prince  of  Or- 
ange. The  prince  took  Grave,  the  last  town  the  French  held 
in  the  United  Provinces.  Turenne  was  successful  on  the 
Bide  of  Germany :  he  overran  the  Palatinate ;  but  his  laurels 
were  tarnished  by  the  horrible  cruelties  and  excesses  com- 
mitted by  his  troops. 

1675.  Louis  again  vainly  sought  peace.  In  the  next  campaign 
nothing  of  importance  took  place  in  Flanders.  In  Germany 
Turenne  was  kUled  by  a  cannon-ball,  and  the  French  army 
forced  to  recross  the  Rhine. 

676.  The  next  year  the  French  were  successful  in  Flanders, 
taking  Conde  and  Bouchain.  The  imperialists  took  Philips- 
burg.  The  French  fleet  defeated  the  combined  Dutch  and 
Spanish  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  rode  triumphant  in 
that  sea, 

677  The  Dutch  were  now  as  anxious  for  peace  as  I<ouis ;  but 
the  prince  of  Orange  wishing  to  continue  the  wcr,  another 
campaign  was  opened.  Louis  took  Valencienn  ja,  Cambray, 
and  St  Omer,  and  defeated  the  prince  at  Mount  C>iKsal,  when 
he  attempted  the  relief  of  this  last  town.  The  Fp.3nch  arms 
under  Crequi  and  other  generals  were  successful  on  the 
Rhine.  Spain  was  torn  by  factions.  A  congress  had  been 
sitting  all  this  while  at  Nimeguen,  and  a  conditional  treaty 
was  entered  into  between  France  and  the  Dutch.  The  prince 
of  Orange  married  in  this  year  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
York 


Ch&rh8  II.  of  EDt^land. 


James  II.  of  England. 


ijHA¥  V  TIMES  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  459 

In  the  following  year,  Louis  took  Ghent  and  Ypres.  The  *.  d 
Dutch  were  terrified,  and  signed  a  separate  peace  at  Nime-  ^^"^^ 
guen.  The  allies  clamored  :  the  prince  of  Orange  sought  to 
break  it  by  an  attack  on  a  French  army ;  but  all  were  finally 
obliged  to  accede  to  it.  By  this  treaty  Louis  retained  Franche- 
Comte  and  Cambray,  Tourney,  Valenciennes,  and  several 
otlier  towns  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  his  power  was  now 
by  far  the  most  formidable  in  Europe. 

England,  to  the  Revolution. 

The  object  of  Charles  IL  was  to  establish  absolute  power 
and  popery ;  and  the  people,  recovering  from  their  delirium 
of  loyalty,  gradually  became  jealous  and  suspicious  of  him. 
Episcopacy  having  been  restored,  an  iniquitous  attempt  was  166* 
made  to  force  it  on  Scotland.  The  detestable  barbarity  of 
the  government  was  opposed  by  the  fierce  bigotry  and  fanati- 
cism of  the  people,  and  horrible  cruelties  were  exercised  to 
subdue  them.  The  awakened  fears  and  bigotry  of  the  nation 
caused  a  Popish  Plot  to  be  got  up  in  England,  and  several  1678 
innocent  Catholics  were  judicially  murdered.  The  jealousy 
of  the  commons  against  the  designs  of  the  court  was  ever  alive, 
and  it  drove  them  into  some  measures  not  compatible  with 
justice  and  policy.  It  was  attempted  to  exclude  the  duke  of 
York,  a  known  papist,  from  the  crown,  and  the  Test  Act  was 
passed.  But  the  court,  by  taking  advantage  of  circumstances, 
particularly  of  the  Ryehouse  Plot,  and  secretly  supplied  with 
money  by  Louis,  advanced  rapidly  in  the  career  of  despotism, 
or  rather  approached  nearer  the  precipice  over  which  it  was 
to  be  whirled.  Russel  and  Sidney  were  publicly  executed ;  1683 
passive  obedience  was  preached ;  justice  was  perverted. 

In  this  state  of  affairs  the  king  died.  He  expired  in  the  1C83 
faith  of  the  church  of  Rome,  which  he  had  long  secretly  pro- 
fessed. It  was  indeed,  morally  speaking,  a  matter  of  little 
importance  what  the  religious  sentiments  were  of  such  a 
heartless,  selfish  profligate.  It  is  an  instance  of  the  eflfcct 
of  popular  manners  and  showy  qualities  on  the  minds  of  the 
vulgar,  that  this  prince,  the  mean  pensioner  of  France,  the 
conspirer  against  the  religion  and  liberties  of  his  people,  every 
one  of  whose  acts  tended  to  disgrace  the  nation,  wae,  like 
Edward  IV.  and  Henry  VIII.,  instead  of  being  detested,  rather 
a  favorite  with  the  country  at  large. 

James  II.,  in  his  fanatic  zeal  for  popery,  would  hearken  to 
no  remonstrance  of  prudence.  The  duke  of  Monmouth,  a 
natural  son  of  the  late  king,  took  up  arms  in  the  west  of 
England ;  but  was  defeated,  and  he  and  numbers  of  his  ad- 
herents executed  by  order  of  the  relentless  tyrant.  The  king 


460  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  111 

proceeded  in  hia  design  of  changing  the  relig,  (j  of  the  coun- 
try, and  attempted  to  place  Papists  in  the  chu.  ch  and  univer- 
sities. Having  ordered  his  declaration  of  indulgence  to  be 
read  in  the  pulpit,  the  primate  and  six  bishops  petitioned 
against  it.  They  were  committed  to  the  Tow^r,  tried,  and 
acquitted.  The  joy  of  the  people  at  this  event  ^s  no  warn- 
ing to  the  king.  The  Wiiigs  and  Tories  (the  parties  into 
which  the  nation  was  now  divided)  coalesced  o\  'he  birth  of 
a  young  prince,  and  invited  over  the  prince  of  Orange  to  de- 
liver the  nation.  The  prince  embarked  with  a  large  force. 
».  D.  The  troops  of  James  deserted  him.  He  and  his  queen  and 
i?S8.  son  fled  to  France.  The  throne  was  declared  vacant,  and  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Orange  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of 
England.  The  BUI  of  Rights,  and,  at  a  subsequent  period, 
the  Act  of  Settlement,  were  passed  for  the  security  of  tlie 
nation. 

Such  was  the  revolution  of  1688,  justly  called  Glorious ; 
the  noblest  instance  history  presents  of  the  salutary  and  ir- 
resistible power  of  public  opinion,  directed  by  wisdom,  and 
aiming  at  just  and  worthy  ends.  It  is  an  event  to  which  Eng- 
land, as  long  as  her  name  and  her  language  exist,  must  look 
back  with  pride  and  gratitude ;  it  stands  a  noble  monument 
of  bloodless  resistance,  amidst  the  scenes  of  cruelty,  slaugh- 
ter, and  oppression  which  deform  the  domains  of  history.  Be- 
fore its  radiance,  absolute  power,  passive  obedience,  and  their 
kindred  doctrines,  fled  like  spectres  of  the  night,  to  conceal 
themselves  from  human  view. 

Wars  to  the^  Peace  of  Ryswick. 

After  the  peace  of  Nimeguen,  Louis  proceeded  to  act  in  the 
most  arbitrary  and  insolent  manner.  He  treacherously  made 
himself  mfteter  of  Strasburg,  and  demanded  Alost  from  the 

1683.  Spaniards.  The  Turks  had  at  this  time  invaded  Hungary,  and 
occupied  the  imperial  arms.  Joined  by  the  Hungarian  malcon- 
tents, who  had  invited  them,  the  Tu  rkish  army  advanced  towards 
Vienna.  The  vizier  laid  siege  to  that  city ;  but  the  German 
princes  collected  their  forces,  and,  under  the  command  of 

|<>84  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  came  to  its  relief.  The  Turks 
were  seized  with  a  panic,  and  fled ;  and  they  were  finally 
driven  out  of  Hungary.  Louis,  who  had  suspended  his  ope- 
rations during  the  siege  of  Vienna,  now  reduced  Luxemburg, 
Courtray,  and  Dixmund.  The  emperor  and  Spain  were  forced 
to  conclude  a  truce  with  him.  He  was  now  at  the  height  of 
his  power :  he  had  a  most  extensive  marine ;  had  chastised 
the  pirate  states  of  Africa,  trampled  on  the  power  and  inde- 
pendence of  Genoa,  and  insulted  the  dignity  of  the  pope.    lu 


rirAP  y  times  of  louis  xiv.  461 

I  ho  ignorance  o!  his  bigotry,  he  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantz,  a.  d. 
ir''!ited  his  Protestant  subjects  with  all  the  injustice  and  cru-  1685 
•'lly  that  blind  fanaticism  could  dictate,  and  thereby  lost  to 
Prance  thousands  of  industrious  citizens,  who  augmented  the 
•A'caith  and  the  armies  of  his  enemies. 

A  league  was  formed  at  Augsburg,  to  restrain  the  en-  1687 
croachments  of  France.    Spain  and  Holland  joined  it,  as  also 
did  nenmark,  Sweden,  and  Savoy,  and,  finally,  England,  now 
governed  by  William.  The  emperor  Leopold  was  at  the  head 
of  the  confederacy.     Louis  assembled  two  large  armies  in  1G89 
Flanders;  a  third  was  opposed  to  the  Spaniards  in  Catalonia; 
another  entered  and  ravaged  the  palatinate  in  a  most  barbar- 
ous and  fiendish  manner,  a  conduct  almost  peculiar  to  the 
French  among  civilized  nations.     But  this  detestable  policy 
did  not  avail  Louis :  his  troops  were  unsuccessful  on  all  sides ; 
and  he  lost  Mentz  and  Bonn.     In  the  next  campaign  he  was  1C90 
more  fortunate :  the  mareschal  de  Catinat  reduced  all  Savoy; 
Luxemburg  and  Boufflers  defeated  the  allies  at  Fleurus,  and 
Catalonia  was  thrown  into  confusion.     The  Turks  were  suc- 
cessful in  Hungary.     The  French  fleet  defeated  the  com- 
bined Dutch  and  English  off  Beachy-head.     The  following  1G91. 
year,  though  Louis  took  Mons,  he  and  his  allies  the  Turks, 
made  little  progress.     Louis,  the  ensuing  spring,  took  Na- 
mur;  and  the  king  of  England  made  an  unsuccessful  attack 
on  the  French  army  at  Steenkirk ;  Catinat  was  driven  back,  1692 
and  the  duke  of  Savoy  ravaged  Dauphine.     Waradin  was 
taken  from  the  Turks.     The  French  fleet  was  defeated  off" 
La  Hogue.    Next  year,  Luxemburg  defeated,  at  Landen,  the  169JL 
allies,  commanded  by  the  king  of  England;  and  Catinat,  those 
under  the  duke  of  Savoy,  at  the  river  Cisola.     A  French 
squadron  dispersed  and  captured  several  ships  of  the  Smyrna 
fleet  Meanwhile,  France  was  internally  suffering  the  effects 
of  war.     Agriculture  and  commerce  languished;  and,  in  the 
next  campaign,  nothing  of  importance  was  done.  In  the  cam- 
paif '\  of  1695,  William  recovered  Namur.    In  the  following,  lf96 
no  signal  event  occurred.  All  parties  were  now  tired  of  war. 
A  congress  was  opened  at  Ryswick,  near  Delft,  and  a  treaty  1C97 
concluded,  by  which  Louis  made  great  concessions,  acknow- 
ledging William  III.,  and  restoring  to  Spain  almost  all  the 
places  that  had  been  united  to  France,  and  giving  back  Lor- 
rain  and  Bar  to  their  native  princes.     The  gallant  sultan, 
Mustafa  II.,  was  totally  defeated  at  Zenta,  in  Hungary,  by  169V 
prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  and  forced  to  conclude  a  peace  at 
Carlowilz.     Tranquillity  was  thus  for  a  time  restored. 


39 


46^  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  11*. 

England. 

^  D.      The  cause  of  James  was  supported  m  Scotland  by  the  brave 
Itm  but  cruel  viscount  Dundee.     At  the  battle  of  Killicranky,  he 
was  killed  in  the  midst  of  victory.  The  Presbyterian  religion 
was  re-established  in  that  kingdom.     James  himself  passing 
over  to  Ireland,  the  Catholics  armed  in  his  favor.  They  were 
repulsed  in  their  attempt  on  Derry,  and  William  soon  landed 
690.  in  Ireland,  and  gained  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Boyne.  James 
fled  to  France.   William  invested  Limerick  without  success 
but  the  following  year,  his  general,  de  Ginckel,  defeated  the 
lf.91.  Irish  at  Aughrim,  took  Athlone,  and  Limerick  surrendered 
on  conditions  which  were  not  subsequently  very  rigidly  ad- 
hered to  by  the  victorious  party. 

The  government  of  William  III.,  the  ablest  prince  of  his 
ao-e,  and  one  of  the  best  and  greatest  monarchs  that  have  sat 
on  the  English  throne,  was  now  firmly  established  with  the 
consent  and  support  of  the  majority  of  the  British  nation, 
though  a  strong  faction  still  clung  to  the  cause  of  the  banished 
yrant. 

Spanish  Succession. 

Charles  II.  of  Spain  had  no  children,  and  his  health  was 
declining.  The  claimants  of  the  crown  were  Louis  XIV. 
and  the  dauphin,  and  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Both  Louis  and  Leopold  were  equally  related  to 
Charles :  they  were  grandsons  of  Philip  III.,  and  married  to 
daughters  of  Philip  IV.  A  third  competitor  was  the  electora] 
prince  of  Bavaria.  Right  of  birth  was  with  the  Bourbons,  as 
the  king  and  the  dauphin  were  descended  from  the  eldest  in- 
fantas; but  the  imperial  family  pleaded  the  renunciations 
made  by  Louis  XIII.  and  XIV.,  and,  as  the  descendants  of 
Maximilian,  the  right  of  male  representation.  The  electoral 
prince  claimed  in  right  of  his  mother,  the  only  surviving  child 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  by  the  infanta  Margaret,  second 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.,  who  had  declared  her  descendants 
heir  to  the  crown,  in  preference  to  those  of  his  eldest  daugh- 
ter. It  was  for  the  interest  of  Europe  that  the  Bavarian  prince 
should  succeed ;  but  he  was  unable  to  contend  with  his  rivals. 
No  power  was  inclined  for  war.  Louis  and  Leopold  secretly 
intrigued  at  Madrid.  The  body  of  the  Spanish  nation  waa 
for  the  former ;  the  queen  and  her  party  for  the  emperor, 
698.  Meantime  France,  England,  and  Holland  secretly  signed  a 
treaty  of  partition,  to  give  Spain,  America,  and  the  Nether- 
Ismds  to  the  electoral  prince ;  Naples,  Sicily,  some  places  in 


Qacen  Anne,  of  England. 


William  III.  of  Bngtand. 


CtlAP.  V.  TIMES  OF  I.OUIS  XIV.  465 

Italy  and  Spain  to  the  daupliin;  and  the  duchy  of  Milan  to 
Charles,  the  emperor's  second  son. 

This  treaty  coming  to  the  knowledge  of  the  court  of  Spain, 
filled  it  with  rage.     The  king  made  a  will  in  favor  of  the 
electoral  prince.     England  and  Holland  were  well  pleased  a.  d. 
at  tiiis;  but  the  sudden  death  of  that  prince  revived  their  1699 
apprehensions.     A  second  treaty  of  partition  was  secretly 
signed  by  the  same  powers,  giving  the  electoral  prince's  part  1700 
to  the  archduke  Charles,  and  Milan  to  the  duke  of  Lorrain, 
who  was  to  cede  his  territories  to  the  dauphin ;  and  care  was 
taken  to  prevent,  in  any  case,  the  crown  of  Spain  being  united 
to  that  of  France  or  the  empire. 

The  emperor  rejected  the  treaty  of  partition,  and  the  king 
of  Spain  nominated  the  archduke  his  heir.  The  nobles  and 
clergy  of  Spain  were  for  the  Bourbons.  The  archbishop  of 
Toledo  prevailed  on  the  king  to  write  to  consult  the  pope ; 
and  Innocent  XII.,  aware  that  the  liberties  of  Italy  depended 
on  restraining  the  imperial  power,  required  him  to  prefer  the 
family  of  Bourbon.  A  new  will  was  secretly  made,  in  which  1701 
the  duke  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  the  dauphin,  was  declared 
heir.  Charles  died  soon  afterwards,  and  Louis,  after  some 
hesitation,  accepting  the  succession,  the  young  king  was 
crowned,  under  the  title  of  Philip  V. ;  and  England  and  Hol- 
land found  it  necessary  to  acknowledge  him.  Leopold  dis- 
puted his  title,  and  sent  an  army  into  Italy,  to  support  his 
claim  to  Milan.  He  met  there  with  signal  success :  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch,  after  some  fruitless  negotiations  with  France, 
resolved  to  support  him.  He  gained  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg by  creating  him  king  of  Prussia;  and  the  king  of  Den- 
mark was  ready  to  aid  him. 

A  treaty,  called  the  Grand  Alliance,  was  signed  by  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  emperor,  the  Stntes  General,  and  the 
king  of  England.  The  avowed  objects  of  it  were,  to  procure 
the  emperor  satisfaction  respecting  the  Spanish  succession, 
to  prevent  the  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish  monarchies, 
&c.  Neither  England  nor  Holland  would  agree  to  support 
the  emperor  in  his  demand  of  all  the  Spanish  dominions. 

On  the  death  of  William  III.,  his  successor,  queen  Anne,  nOk 
declared  her  resolution  to  adhere  to  the  Grand  Alliance,  and 
war  was  declared  by  the  three  powers  against  France.  In 
the  first  campaign,  the  French  defeated  the  imperialists  on 
the  Upper  Rhine ;  but  the  earl  of  Marlborough  made  greai 
progress  in  Flanders,  and  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and 
Holland  captured  the  Spanish  galleons,  and  took  and  burned 
a  French  fleet  in  Vigo  bay.  The  duke  of  Savoy,  long  irreso-  170: 
lute,  at  length  joined  the  allies,  as  did  also  the  king  of  For 


466  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PARI  ttl 

tugal.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  and  Marshal  Villars  defeated 
the  imperialists  at  Hochstadt.  The  French  had  the  advantage 
in  Italy  and  Alsace.  In  Flanders,  the  genius  of  Marlborough 
kept  them  in  check.  The  emperor  now  directed  his  son 
Charles  to  assume  the  title  of  king  of  Spain. 
4.  D.  The  emperor  was  almost  besieged  in  his  capital  by  the 
■704.  Hungarian  malcontents  on  one  side,  and  the  French  and 
Bavarians  on  the  other.  Marlborough,  as  the  United  Prov- 
inces were  now  secured,  resolved  to  march  into  Germany,  to 
the  aid  of  Leopold.  He  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Coblentz,  and 
meeting  prince  Eugene  at  Mondelsheim,  a  junction  was 
agreed  on  between  the  allies  and  the  imperial  troops  under 
the  duke  of  Baden.  They  forced  the  intrenchments  of  the 
elector  of  Bavaria  at  Donawert.  The  elector  was  reinforced 
by  30.000  French  under  Tallard :  prince  Eugene  joined 
Marlborough  with  20,000.  Each  army  consisted  of  about 
60,000  men,  when  they  engaged  (Aug.  13)  near  the  village 
of  Blenheim,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  The  victory  of 
the  allies  was  signal ;  30,000  French  and  Bavarians  were 
killed,  wounded,  and  taken :  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  5000 
killed,  and  7000  wounded.  All  Bavaria  was  overrun;  the 
victors  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  entered  Alsace.  In  Italy  and 
Spain  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of  the  French ;  but  the 
important  fortress  of  Gibraltar  was  taken  by  the  English. 

1705.  Next  year  the  French  maintained  their  superiority  in  Italy; 
but  in  Spain  almost  the  whole  of  Valencia  and  Catalonia  sub- 
mitted to  Charles.  In  Flanders  Marlborough  was  unable  to 
effect  any  thing.    Leopold  died  this  year. 

1706.  Louis  now  resolved  to  strain  every  nerve  to  maintam  an 
army  in  Germany,  support  his  grandson  in  Spain,  strip  the 
duke  of  Savoy  of  his  dominions,  and  act  offensively  in  Flan- 
ders. The  ardor  of  Villeroy  in  the  latter  country  destroyed 
all  his  projects:  this  general,  though  with  a  superior  force, 
gave  battle  to  Marlborough  at  Ramillies,  and  was  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  7000  killed,  and  6000  prisoners.  All  Brabant, 
and  nearly  all  Spanish  Flanders,  submitted  to  the  conquerors. 
In  Italy  the  French,  under  the  duke  of  Orleans,  were  attacked 
and  driven  out  of  their  camp  before  Turin,  by  prince  Eugene ; 
and  the  house  of  Bourbon  in  consequence  lost  all  the  territo- 
ries it  claimed  in  Italy.  In  Spain  the  French  and  Spaniards 
were  repulsed  in  their  attack  on  Barcelona,  and  the  English 
and  Portuguese  entered  Madrid,  wh'ich  they  were,  however, 
unable  to  retain.  Most  advantageous  terms  were  now  offered 
bv  Louis  to  the  allies;  but  tlie  self-interest  of  Marlborough, 
Eugene,  and  the  pensionary  Heinsius,  prevented  their  being 


JAMES  11. 


WILLIAM   &  MARY. 


ANNE. 


GEORGE  I. 


GEORGE  H. 


GEORGE  III. 


Looii  XJT.  aoeepUng  the  Crown  of  Spain  for  his  QrandMn,  Philip  V. 


CHAP.  V.  TIMES  or  LOUIS  XIV.  469 

accepted,  though  without  any  ferther  effusion  of  blood  all  the 
objects  of  the  grand  alliance  might  now  be  attained. 

Louis  collected  all  his  energies :  his  troops  being  obliged  a  d 
to  evacuate  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Modena,  he  sent  them  to  the  1707 
aid  of  his  grandson ;  and  (April  26)  the  duke  of  Berwick 
(a  natural  son  of  James  II.)  gained  a  most  decisive  victory 
over  the  confederates,  under  the  earl  of  Galway  and  the 
marquis  las  Minas,  at  Almanza.  The  duke  of  Orleans  re- 
duced Valencia  and  part  of  Aragon.  Prince  Eugene  and 
the  duke  of  Savoy  entered  France  and  laid  siege  to  Toulon, 
but  were  forced  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  Enraged  by  a  1708- 
futUe  attempt  of  Lrouis  in  favor  of  the  son  of  James  IL,  the 
English  parliament  adopted  most  vigorous  measures  for  con- 
tinuing the  war.  Marlborough  passed  over  to  Flanders,  where 
the  French  had  taken  Ghent  and  Bruges;  and  though  not 
yet  joined  by  Eugene,  he  crossed  the  Scheld,  and  came  up 
with  the  French  armv,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Vendome, 
at  Oudenarde.  The  battle  was  obstinate,  and  lasted  till 
night,  during  which  the  French  fled,  leaving  the  glory  of  the 
victory  with  the  allies.  Prince  Eugene  now  formed  the 
siege  of  and  took  Lisle ;  and  Ghent  and  Bruges  were  recov- 
ered. The  French  had  rather  the  advantage  in  Spain  and 
Italy ;  but  Sardinia  and  Minorca  surrendered  to  the  English 
admiral  Leake. 

Again  Louis  offered  the  most  honorable  and  advantageous  1709 
terms  to  the  allies :  he  was  willing  to  cede  a'll  the  Spanish 
dominions  to  Charles,  to  give  back  to  the  emperor  all  his 
conquests  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  to  acknowledge  the  succession 
established  in  England,  the  king  of  Prussia,  &c. — in  a  word, 
to  do  every  thing  that  justice  could  possibly  demand.  Again 
the  passions  and  selfishness  of  those  three  above-named  per- 
sons retarded  the  repose  of  Europe.  The  French  monarch 
appealed  to  his  people,  and,  though  wasted  by  famine,  they 
resolved  on  new  efforts. 

The  allied  army,  100,000  strong,  was  formed  on  the  plains 
of  Lisle.  Villars,  who  commanded  the  French  forces,  covered 
Douay  and  Arra.q.  Eugene  and  Marlborough,  deeming  it 
imprudent  to  attack  him,  drew  off,  and  sat  down  before  Tour- 
nay.  That  strong  city  was  reduced.  They  invested  Mons. 
Villars  encamped  within  a  league  of  it,  at  Malplaquet  The 
allies  attacked  him  (Sept  11.)  in  tlie  strong  position  he  occu- 
pied: the  contest  was  obstinate  and  bloody:  the  allies  re- 
mained masters  of  the  field,  with  the  loss  of  15,000  men;  the 
French  retreated,  with  the  loss  of  10,000,  the  armies  having 
been  of  nearly  equal  strength.  Mens  surrendered.  Little 
of  importance  was  done  elsewhere.  Louis  aguin  applied  for  1710 
40 


/ 


470  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  111. 

peace,  and  a  conference  was  appointed  at  Gertruydenburg. 
He  was  willing  to  raake  still  farther  concessions ;  but  the  in- 
aolence  and  extravagance  of  the  demands  of  the  States,  to 
whom  the  negotiation  was  committed,  were  such,  that  it  was 
not  possible  for  him  with  any  honor  to  accede  to  them.  Eu- 
gene and  Marlborough  reduced  Douay,  and  other  towns. 
Villars  declined  a  battle.  In  Spain,  Philip  and  Charles  en- 
gaged each  other  at  Almenara  and  Saragossa,  and  Charles 
was  victorious  in  each  conflict  He  entered  Madrid.  More 
troops  arriving  from  France,  the  Spanish  nobles  made  every 
effort  for  Philip.  Vendome  took  the  command,  and  forced 
the  English  general  Stanhope  to  surrender,  with  5000  men, 
at  Brihuega,  but  was  himself  beatten  at  Villa  Viciosa  by  count 
Staremburg,  with  a  far  inferior  force. 

A  great  portion  of  the  English  nation  was  now  grown  tired 
of  the  expenses  of  the  war ;  a  change  had  taken  place  m  its 
A.  D.  ministry,  the  Tories  having  come  into  power ;  the  emperor 
''3'11.  Joseph  was  dead,  and  his  brother  Charles  had  succeeded  him 
in  the  empire.  As  by  the  grand  alliance  the  imperial  and 
Spanish  crowns  could  not  be  held  by  the  same  person,  a  great 
difficulty  in  the  way  of  adjustment  was  now  removed.  After 
an  inactive  campaign,  conferences  for  peace  were  opened  at 
Utrecht,  where  the  treaties  were  at  last  signed,  on  the  31st 
of  March,  1713,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  France,  England, 
Portugal,  the  United  Provinces,  Prussia,  and  Savoy ;  the  em- 
peror and  the  king  of  Spain  refusing  to  be  included. 

It  was  stipulated  that  Philip  should  renounce  all  title  to  the 
crown  of  France,  and  the  dukes  of  Berri  and  Orleans  to  tllat 
of  Spain;  that  in  case  of  the  failure  of  male  issue  of  Philip, 
the  duke  of  Savoy  should  succeed  to  the  crown  of  Spain ; 
that  Naples,  Milan,  and  the  Spanish  territories  on  the  Tuscan 
coast  should  be  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria,  and  that  house 
secured  in  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands ;  that 
the  Rhine  should  be  .he  boundary  between  France  and  Ger- 
many, &c.  &c.     The  acquisitions  of  England  were  chiefly  in 
America :  she  was  to  retain  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  to  have 
the  Asiento  or  contract  for  supplying  the  Spanish  settlements 
with  negroes  for  thirty  years ;  and  Louis  acknowledged  the 
settlement  of  the  English  throne.     But  the  real  gain  was  on 
the  side  of  Louis,  who  obtamed  all  that  the  war  had  been  en- 
gaged in  to  prevent  his  acquiring.   This  treaty  brought  well- 
merited  odium  on  the  English  ministry. 
714       The  following  year  the  emperor  made  peace  at  Rastadt,  on 
less  favorable  terms  than  were  offered  him  at  Utrecht.     The 
king  of  Spain  also  acceded  to  the  pacification,  and  Europe 
rested  from  war. 


CHAP.  V.  TIMES  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  471 

In  thifl  year  died  Louis  XIV.,  the  disturber  of  Europe  for 
nearly  half  a  century.  Ilis  grandson  and  successor  being  a 
minor,  the  duke  of  Orleans  was  appointed  regent. 

North  of  Europe — Peter  the  Great — Charles  XII. 

The  people  of  Denmark,  to  escape  the  tyranny  of  the  no-  x.  d 
bles,  solemnly  surrendered  their  liberties  to  Frederick  III.,  in  1670 
1661.     His  successor.  Christian  V.,  made  war  on  Charles 
XI.  of  Sweden,  whose  father,  Charles  X.,'had  been  called  to 
the  throne,  on  the  abdication  of  Christina,  daughter  of  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus.     Charles  XII.,  a  minor,  succeeded  his  father,  1697 
Charles  XI. 

Alexei  of  Russia  was  followed  by  his  son  Theodore,  who, 
dying  early,  appointed  his  half-brother  Peter  to  succeed;  but  i682 
his  sister  Sophia,  aided  by  the  Strelitzcs,  attempted  to  secure 
the  power  for  herself  Peter  being  but  ten  years  of  age,  she 
made  his  imbecile  brother  Ivan  tsar,  and  associated  Peter 
with  him.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  Peter  succeeded  in  sub- 
verting the  power  of  Sophia,  and  obtained  the  full  royal  dig- 
nity and  influence.  He  defeated  the  Turks  at  Azoph,  which  1C96 
opened  to  him  the  Black  Sea.  He  formed  vast  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  his  empire,  and  he  spent  a  year  in  Holland 
and  England,  making  himself  acquainted  with  the  useful  arts. 

Eager  to  distinguish  himself  in  war,  he  joined  the  kings  of  1701 
Poland  and  Denmark  against  the  young  king  of  Sweden. 
Charles,  though  a  youth,  showed  himself  a  hero.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  Holland  ainl  England,  landed  in  Denmark, 
laid  siege  to  Copenhagen,  and  forced  the  king  to  a  peace. 
The  Russians  had,  meantime,  besieged  Narva  with  80,000 
men.  Charles  hasted  thither  with  10,000,  forced  their  in- 
trenchments,  killed  18,000,  and  took  30,000  prisoners.  Next 
year  he  defeated  the  Poles  and  Saxons  on  the  Duna,  and  1702 
overran  Livonia,  Courland,  and  Lithuania. 

Augustus  elector  of  Saxony  was  king  of  Poland  :  his  new 
subjects  were  dissatisfied  with  him.  Charles  fonned  the  de- 
sign of  dethroning  him  by  their  means.  lie  defeated  him  at 
Clissau,  between  Warsaw  and  Crftcow,  and  this  last  city  sur- 
rendered. Augustus  engaged  him  again  at  Pultausk,  and 
was  again  defeated.  He  fled  to  Tliorn.  The  throne  was  1703 
pronounced  vacant  by  the  diet,  in  which  the  intrigues  of 
Charles  prevailed,  and  Stanislaus  Leczinzky  was  chosen  king.  1704 

Peter,  having  retaken  Narva,  sent  60,000  men  into  Poland : 
a  Saxon  army  entered  it  under  general  Schalemburg;  but 
Charles  soon  drove  the  Russians  out  of  the  country,  and  hia 
general  Renschild  defeated  Schalemburg  at  Frauenstadt  with  170& 
great  slaughter,     The  king  of  Sweden  entered  and  overran 


472  mSTOBT  OF  THB  WORLD.  PART  III. 

A.  D.  Saxony,  and  forced  Augustus  to  recognize  Stanislaus.  Having 

1707.  made  the  emperor  comply  with  has  demands,  Charles  re- 
turned to  Poland,  with  40,000  men.  He  attempted,  though 
it  was  winter,  to  march  to  Moscow;  but  the  Tsar  had  de- 
stroyed the  roads.  Urged  by  Mazeppa,  chief  of  the  Cossacks, 
who  offered  to  join  him  with  30,000  men,  and  supply  him 
'<)8.  with  provisions,  he  entered  the  Ukraine.  Here  he  encoun- 
tered nothing  but  disappointment.  Mazeppa's  plans  had  been 
discovered ;  no  supplies  were  provided :  general  Lewenhaupt, 
whom  he  had  ordered  to  join  him  with  15,000  men  from  Livo- 
nia, arrived  with  his  army  reduced  to  4000  men.  Though 
urged  by  his  ministers  to  retreat,  or  to  winter  in  the  Ukraine, 
he  madly  resolved  to  proceed.  He  laid  siege  to  Pultowa,  a 
strong  town.  His  army  was  now  reduced  to  less  than  30,000 
men ;  the  Tzar,  at  the  head  of  70,000,  approached  to  its  relief. 
Charles,  leaving  7000  to  conduct  the  siege,  advanced  to  give 

nw.  him  battle.  (July  8).  The  result  of  the  conflict  was  that 
Charles,  with  300  men,  sought  a  refuge  with  the  Turks  at 
Bender.  The  entire  Swedish  army  were  killed  or  Uiken. 
Augustus  recovered  Poland;  and,  but  for  the  emperor  and 
the  maritime  powers,  Sweden  would  have  been  dismem- 
bered. 

After  an  abode  of  nearly  five  years  in  Turkey,  Charles  re- 
turned to  his  own  dominions,  and  conducted  the  war  agamst 
the  Danes  and  Saxons.     He  was  at  length  killed  before  the 
na  fortress  of  Fredericshall,  in  Norway.     His  sister  Ulrica  was 
crowned  queen. 

Peter,  justly  styled  the  Great,  having  given  his  country  a 
rank  among  European  powers,  introduced  into  her  civilization 
and  the  arts,  and  founded  a  capital  in  the  north  of  his  domin- 
ions, took  the  title  of  emperor.  But  he  never  was  able  to 
subdue  the  native  ferocity  of  his  own  temper,  and  he  put  to 
death  his  son  Alexis  for  no  just  cause.     He  left  his  crown  to 

J  726.  his  wife,  the  famous  Catherine  I. 

England. 

The  chief  domestic  events  in  Great  Britain  were  the  union 
with  Scotland,  accomplished  in  1706,  and  the  settlement  of 
701.  the  crown  on  Sophia,  duchess  dowager  of  Hanover,  and  her 
heirs,  being  Protestants.  This  prmcess  was  daughter  of 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,  who  was  married  to  the  un 
fortunate  elector  palatine. 


*^:??^vv:jwi 

Rising  of  the  Scottish  Clans,  in  1715. 


CHAt.  VI.        PERIOD  OP  COMPARATIVE  REPOSB.  476 

CHAP.  VI. 

rERIOD  OF  COMPARATIVE  REPOSE 

England. 

On  the  death  of  queen  Anne,  George  elector  of  Hanover  a.  d 
was,  by  virtue  of  the  act  of  settlement,  proclaimed  king.    The    'i-* 
power  of  the  state  was  now  committed  to  the  Whigs,  and  the 
late  Tory  ministers,  who  had  been  desirous  of  securing  the 
succession  of  the  son  of  James  II.,  now  called  the  Pretender, 
were  impeached  of  high  treason.    Louis  XIV.  had  refused  to 
take  any  share  in  the  projects  of  the  Pretender,  but,  on  his 
death,  the  regent  of  France  secretly  encouraged  him.     His 
partisans  rose  in  arms  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  1715. 
west  of  England.    The  English  rebels  were  forced  to  surren- 
der at  Preston ;  and  the  battle  of  SherifF-Muir,  though  not  de- 
cisive, crushed  the  hopes  of  the  northern  rebels.     The  Pre- 
tender himself  landed  in  Scotland,  but,  finding  his  affairs  des- 
perate, retired. 

In  this  reign  was  passed  the  act  for  making  parliaments 
septennial  instead  of  triennial,  which  they  had  previously  1727 
been.    George  II.  succeeded  his  father. 

The  Quadruple  Alliance. 

Philip  V.  had,  after  the  death  of  his  first  queen,  married  1711 
Elizabeth  Farnese,  presumptive  heiress  of  Parma,  Placentia, 
Eind  Tuscany.  She  was  a  woman  of  spirit,  and  governed  that 
weak  monarch ;  she  was  herself  directed  by  Alberoni,  a  na- 
tive of  Placentia.  This  bold  statesman  formed  the  project  of 
recovering  all  the  dominions  ceded  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
especially  those  in  Italy.  He  labored  to  put  the  finances  of 
Spain  on  the  best  footing;  he  intrigued  in  every  court;  he 
persuaded  Philip  that  his  renunciation  of  the  crown  of  France 
was  invalid,  and  that  he  had  even  a  right  to  the  regency  of 
that  kmgdom.  Alberoni  encouraged  the  Scottish  Jacobites,  and 
inflamed  the  French  malcontents,  and  a  plot  was  formed  for 
a  rising  in  Poitou,  and  a  seizure  of  the  person  of  the  regent. 

The  exorbitant  ambition  of  the  court  of  Spain  determined 
the  regent  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  England,  Holland, 
and  the  emperor,  to  maintain  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  This 
was  called  the  Quadruple  Alliance.  One  of  its  articles 
was,  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  should  exchange  Sicily  with  the 
emperor  for  Sardinia,  of  which  he  was  to  take  the  title  of 
kmg;  and  by  another,  Don  Carlos,  son  of  the  young  queer 


476  HISTORY  OF  THK  WORLD.  PART  III 

of  Spain,  was  to  succeed  to  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Tuscany 
on  the  death  of  the  present  possessors  without  issue. 
A.  D.      This  alliance  made  no  change  in  the  conduct  of  the  court 
1'18-  of  Spain,  who  had  already  taken  possession  of  Sardinia  and  a 
part  of  Sicily,  and  France  and  England  declared  war  against 
her.    An  English  fleet,  under  Sir  George  Byng,  entered  the 
Mediterranean,  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  near  Sicily,  an 
that  island  and  Sardinia  were  recovered.    The  duke  of  Ber 
wick  reduced  St  Sebastian  and  Fontarabia,  and  Philip  wa 
obliged  to  dismiss  Alberoni,  and  accede  to  the  terms  of  th 
1720.  quadruple  alliance. 

1725.  A  private  treaty  was  aflerwards  concluded  between  the 
emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain  at  Vienna.  This  treaty  gave 
umbrage  to  England,  France,  and  Holland ;  and  to  counteract 
it,  one  was  concluded  at  Hanover  between  them  and  Prussia, 

1726.  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain 
remained  quiet ;  but  the  English  fitted  out  three  fleets,  one 
of  which,  under  admiral  Hosier,  was  sent  to  the  West  Indies 
to  block  up  the  galleons  at  Porto  Bello ;  but  the  attempt  waa 
a  complete  failure.  The  Spaniards,  in  return,  laid  seige  to 
Gibraltar.     By  the  mediation  of  France  a  treaty  was  made 

1729.  at  Seville,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  all  the  stipulations  of 
the  quadruple  alliance  should  be  fulfilled. 

1731.  The  treaty  of  Seville  was  confirmed  by  the  emperor,  and 
the  Spanish  troops  took  possession  of  Parma  and  Placentia. 
The  contracting  powers  agreed  to  guaranty  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  or  law  by  which  the  emperor  secured  to  his  female 
heirs  the  succession  of  the  Austrian  dominions  in  case  of  his 
dying  without  male  issue,  and  the  peace  of  Europe  was  now 
restored. 

733.  But,  on  the  death  of  Augustus  king  of  Poland,  Stanislaus, 
who  was  recommended  by  the  king  of  France,  who  had  mar- 
ried his  daughter,  being  a  second  time  chosen  king,  the  em- 
peror and  the  Russians  made  the  Poles  proceed  to  another 
election,  and  choose  the  elector  of  Saxony,  son  of  Augustus. 
The  king  of  France  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  kings 
of  Spain  and  Sardinia,  and  war  was  commenced  against  the 
emperor  in  Germany  and  Italy.  The  French  arms  were  suc- 
cessful in  Germany.  In  two  campaigns  the  Spaniards  be- 
came masters  of  Naples  and  Sicily ;  the  troops  of  France  and 
Savoy  took  Milan  and  other  places,  and  gave  the  imperialists 
two  complete  defeats  at  Parma  and  at  Guastella.  The  em- 
peror was  now  desirous  of  peace ;  and  as  the  pacific  Fleury 
directed  the  councils  of  France,  a  treaty  was  easily  brought 

735.  about  Stanislaus  was  to  resign  his  claim  to  the  crown  of 
PoJand  for  the  dachy  of  Lorrain,  the  duke  of  Lorrain  being 


OHiP.  VI  PERIDD  OF  COMPARATIVE  REPOSE.  477 

gecured  by  Louis  an  annual  pension  of  8,500,000  livres  till 
the  death  of  John  Gaston,  the  last  of  the  house  of  Medici,  and 
in  that  event  the  duchy  of  Tuscany ;  the  emperor  was  to  ac- 
knowledge Don  Carlos  as  king  of  the  two  Sicilies,  and  to  re- 
ceive the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia ;  Novara  and  Tor- 
tona  were  to  be  given  to  the  king  of  Sardinia ;  France  was 
to  give  back  her  conquests  in  Germany,  and  to  guaranty  the  a.  i> 
Pragmatic  Sanction.  Peace  waa  made  at  Vienna  on  these  1738 
terms. 

Russia. 

Catherine  reigned  but  two  years  after  the  death  of  Peter. 
She  died  in  the  38th  year  of  her  age,  and  her  son  Peter  became  172"^ 
emperor.  After  a  short  reign  of  three  years,  Peter  also  died. 
The  Dolgoruki  family,  as  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Romanov  1730 
expired  in  hun,  thought  this  a  favorable  occasion  for  gaining 
the  love  of  the  nation  by  limiting  the  imperial  authority. 
Deputies  were  sent  to  offer  the  crown,  on  certain  conditions, 
to  Anne,  the  widow  of  the  duke  of  Courland,  and  daughter 
of  the  Tsar  Ivan,  brother  of  Peter  tlie  Great.  She  accepted 
the  conditions;  bnt  when  she  found  herself  fixed  on  the 
throne,  she  tore  the  contract,  and  ruled  with  absolute  power. 
Having  no  children,  Anne  fixed  on  marrying  the  daughter  of 
her  sister  Catherine,  duchess  of  Mecklenburg,  also  named 
Anne,  to  some  foreign  prince,  and  settling  the  succession  on 
the  offspring  of  their  marriage.  The  princess  was,  therefore, 
united  to  Anton  Ulrich  of  Brunswick-Bevern,  by  whom  she 
bare  a  son  named  Ivan,  who  succeeded  the  empress.  1740 

Turkish  wars. 

The  Turks  had,  in  1669,  taken  Candia  from  the  Venetians. 
By  the  peace  of  Carlowitz  (1699),  the  Venetians  obtained 
tlie  Morea,  and  some  places  in  Dalmatia.  While  Charles 
XII.  was  in  Turkey,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Turks  and 
Russians;  but  the  Tsar,  who  had  advanced  to  the  Pruth,  be- 
ing greatly  outnumbered  by  the  army  of  the  vizier,  was  glad 
to  conclude  a  treaty.  1711 

Immediately  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  sultan  Ahmed  III.  1715 
declared  war  against  tiie  Venetians,  and  overran  the  Morea. 
The  emperor  Charles  VI.,  as  guarantee  of  the  peace  of 
Carlowitz,  declared  war  against  the  Turks,  and  prince  Eu- 
gene gave  the  troops  of  tlie  sultan  a  total  defeat  at  Peter- 
waradm.  He  laid  siege  to  Belgrade,  defeated  an  army  that  1717 
came  jo  Its  relief,  and  compelled  it  to  surrender. 

A  peace  was  made  at  Passarowitz,  by  which  the  Turk*  .'"li 


478  insTORY  OP  the  world.  part  m 

Burrendered  Belgrade  and  the  Bannat  of  Temiswar,  but  re- 
tained the  Morea. 

i  D.      Under  the  pretext  of  the  incursions  of  the  Nogai  Tatars 

173G.  not  being  checked,  the  empress  of  Russia  declared  war 
against  Turkey.  A  Russian  army,  under  Miinnich,  took  pos- 
session of  the  Crimea.     In  the  following  campaign  the  town 

737.  of  OczacofF  was  taken  by  storm.  The  emperor  now  joined 
the  Russians,  as  he  was  bound  to  do  by  treaty ;  but  the  im- 
perial arms  met  little  success,  and  a  peace  was  concluded,  to 
which  the  Russian  empress,  though  her  forces  had  gained  a 
great  victory  at  Chotin,  was  obliged  to  accede.     Belgrade, 

739  Sabatch,  and  the  Austrian  part  of  Servia,  were  ceded  to 
Turkey ;  Russia  retained  Azoph. 

Persia — Nadir  Shah. 

The  dynasty  of  the  Suffavies  had  occupied  the  throne  of 
Persia  for  220  years.  Their  latter  princes  had  been  effemi- 
nate sensualists,  and   capricious  tyrants.     In  the  reign  of 

1722.  Shah  Hoossein,  Mahmood,  an  Affghan  prince,  invaded  Persia, 
defeated  the  troops  of  Hoossein,  and  forced  him  to  abdicate 
in  his  favor.     Tamasp,  the  son  of  Hoossem,  straggled  inef- 

1725.  fectuaUy  against  the  usurper.  The  Turks  and  the  Russians 
invaded  Persia.  Mahmood  dying,  was  succeeded  by  Ashraff, 
a  valiant  Affghan  chief:  but  Tamasp  was  now  supported  by 
Nadir  Kooli,  who,  from  a  low  rank  in  one  of  the  Turkish 
tribes  in  Khorassan,  had,  by  his  valor  and  talents,  raised  him- 
self to  power  and  importance.     The  fortune  of  war  was  ad- 

>~29.  verse  to  the  Affghan  monarch ;  he  was  defeated,  and  after- 
wards slain. 

Nadir  was  presented  by  Shah  Tamasp  with  the  four  finest 
provinces  of  the  empire.  He  turned  his  arms  with  success 
against  the  Turks ;  but  while  he  was  absent  in  Khorassan, 
Tamasp  marched  against  them,  was  defeated,  and  reduced  to 
make  an  ignominious  peace.  Nadir,  inveighing  against  thi? 
national  disgrace,  dethroned  the  unhappy  prince,  and  occu- 
732.  pied  his  place.  He  then  commenced  operations  anew  against 
the  Turkish  forces,  and  defeated  them.  Offended  at  a  breach 
of  friendship  by  the  emperor  of  India,  Nadir  invaded  that 
country.     One  great  victory,  near  Delhi,  laid  the  power  of 

•73a  the  descendant  of  Timoor  at  his  feet.  Upwards  of  30,000,000 
sterling  of  booty,  and  the  annexation  of  the  ccuntry  west  of 
the  Indus  to  his  dominions,  rewarded  the  victory  of  Nadir, 
who  committed  less  crimes  in  so  great  a  conquest  than  almost 
any  Asiatic  victor.  He  afterwards  subdued  the  kings  of  Bok- 
hara and  Khowaresm,  and  gained  a  final  victory  over  the 
Turks  in  Armenia.     For  the  last  five  years  of  his  life,  Nadu 


LOUIS   XV.  SHOWN    TO   THE   PEOPLE. 


CHAP.  VII.  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II.  481 

exercised  the  most  dreadful  tyranny :  he  blinded  his  brave 
son,  Riza  Kooli,  massacred  his  subjects  by  thousands,  and  ^  ^ 
was  at  lengtlj  assassinated  by  his  own  officers.  His  nephew,  174? 
Adil  Shah,  seized  on  the  supreme  power,  and  murdered  all 
the  family  of  Nadir  but  his  grandson.  Shah  Rokh,  who  ruled 
Khorassan  while  Persia  waa  struggled  for  by  contending 
chief& 


CHAP.  vn. 

TIMES    OF    FREDERIC    II. 

The  Silesian  Wars. 

The  eniperor  Charles  VI.  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  ^''4tt 
dominions  by  his  dau<rhter  Maria  Theresa,  who  was  in  her 
twenty-fourth  year,  and  married  to  Francis  duke  of  Lorrain, 
now  grand  duke  of  Tuscany.  Various  princes  laid  claim  to 
the  wiiole  or  a  part  of  her  dominions;  but  allegiance  was 
readily  sworn  to  lier  by  all  her  subjects,  and  by  her  volunta- 
rily taking  the  oath  of  their  ancient  sovereigns,  she  com- 
pletely gained  the  affections  of  the  Hungarians. 

The  first  power  by  which  she  was  assailed  was  Prussia.  IH 
Frederic  William,  the  late  king,  had  amassed  a  considerable 
treasure,  and  formed  an  army  of  60,000  men.  His  son,  Fred- 
eric II.,  was  young,  talented,  and  ambitious :  he  resolved  to 
take  advantage  of  the  present  state  of  the  queen  of  Hungary, 
and  he  revived  an  antiquated  claim  to  a  part  of  Silesia.  At 
the  head  of  30,000  men  he  overran  a  great  part  of  that  prov- 
ince, and  took  Breslau,  its  capital.  He  offered  to  aid  the 
queen  with  men  and  money  to  protect  the  rest  of  her  domin- 
•ons,  and  to  assist  in  obtaining  the  imperial  throne  for  her 
nusband,  if  she  would  cede  to  him  Lower  Silesia.  Maria  re- 
cused, and  sent  an  army  against  him :  their  forces  met  at 
Molwitz,  near  Neiss,  and  the  superiority  of  the  Prussian  in- 
fantry won  the  day. 

France  had  guarantied  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Fleury 
wished  to  observe  it;  but  the  princes  and  the  young  nobility 
were  eager  for  war,  and  represented  that  the  time  was  come 
for  humbling  the  house  of  Austria,  and  exalting  that  of  Bour- 
bon, by  diminishing  the  Austrian  dominions,  and  raising  to 
the  imperial  dignity  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  the  stipendiary 
of  France. 

The  moderation  of  I/iuis  yielded  to  these  brilliant  pros- 
pects: treaties  of  spoliation  and  division  were  made  with  th« 
41 


482  IIISTOKY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  kings  of  Prussia  and  Poland.  The 
French  forces  were  put  in  motion;  Louis  appointed  the  elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  to  \e  his  lieutenant-general,  with  the  marshals 
Belleisle  and  Bruglio  under  him.  The  king  of  England,  fear- 
mg  for  his  German  dominions,  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrali*;7 
for  Hanover. 

Tiie  elector  of  Bavaria,  being  joined  by  Broglio,  surprised 
Passau,  and  entering  Upper  Austria,  took  Lintz  and  menaced 
Vienna.  The  queen  fled  to  Hungary,  and,  with  her  infant 
son  in  her  arms,  called  on  the  assembled  nobles  for  protection. 
They  swore  to  defend  her  cause  till  death.*  These  were  not 
idle  words ;  crowds  of  warriors  rushed  to  the  field.  To  the 
astonishment  of  her  enemies,  30,000  Hungarians  marched  to 
the  relief  of  Vienna.  The  elector  retired  into  Bohemia, 
where,  joined  by  15,000  Saxons,  he  took  Prague,  and  having 
^  D  been  crowned  king  of  Bohemia,  proceeded  to  Frankfort,  where 
742.  he  was  chosen  emperor  under  the  name  of  Charles  VII. 

The  English  nation  was  eager  for  war;  the  pacific  Sir 
Elobert  Walpole  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  helm  of  the 
state ;  his  successors  resolved  to  assist  the  queen  of  Hungary; 
troops  were  sent  to  the  Netherlands,  and  a  subsidy  voted  to 
the  queen.  Meantime,  the  Austrians  had  recovered  Lintz, 
and  they  entered  Bavaria,  and  took  Munich.  Another  army 
advanced  against  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  had  entered  Mo- 
ravia, which  was  to  be  a  part  of  his  share  of  the  spoil.  He 
retired  before  it,  abandoning  Olmutz  which  he  had  taken. 
The  Austrians  now  intended  uniting  all  their  forces  against 
Broglio  and  Belleisle ;  but  the  king  of  Prussia,  having  been 
reinforced,  marched  to  their  aid,  and  gave  battle  to  prince 
Charles  of  Lorrain  at  Czaslau,  where,  after  an  obstinate  con- 
flict, the  prince  was  forced  to  retire  with  the  loss  of  4000 
men.  Immediately  after  this  battle,  the  king  of  Prussia  made 
at  Breslau  a  separate  treaty  with  the  queen  of  Hangary,  who 
ceded  to  him  Silesia  and  Glatz,  on  condition  of  his  neutrality, 
A  treaty  was  at  the  same  time  concluded  with  the  king  of 
Poland. 

The  court  of  France  was  filled  with  indignation  at  the 
conduct  of  the  king  of  Prussia.  Broglio  and  Belleisle  retired 
under  the  walls  of  Prague,  and  offered  to  surrender  all  their 
conquests  in  Bohemia  for  permission  to  retire.  The  queer 
insisted  on  their  surrendering  as  prisoners  of  war.  They  in 
uignantly  refused.  Maillebois,  who  commanded  on  the  Rhine, 
marched  with  40,000  men  to  their  relief  Being  joined  by 
30,000  Bavarians  and  French,  he  entered  Bohemia ;  but,  un- 

*  Moriamur  pro  rege  nostro  Maria  Theresa. 


2HAP.  VII.  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II.  483 

able  to  join  Broglio  and  Belleisle,  he  was  obligee  to  retire  to 
the  Palatinate.  The  French  were  blockaded  in  Prague. 
Belleisle  made  a  most  gallant  defence,  and  at  last  secretly 
left  the  city,  and  conducted  hia  army  in  safety  to  Egra  in 
the  mid-winter,  and  through  a  country  possessed  by  the 
enemy. 

The  Spaniards  had  sent  an  army  to  seize  tlie  Italian  do- 
minions of  the  house  of  Austria ;  but  by  the  active  exertions 
of  the  English  fleet,  and  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  and  the 
Austrian  general  Traun,  they  gained  little  eidvantage.  The 
court  of  Versailles  now  made  offers  of  peace  on  most  equi- 
table terms ;  but  the  queen,  elated  with  success,  rejected  all 
pacific  measures.  The  imperialists  were  defeated  at  Bran- 
nau;  the  French  were  driven  towards  the  Rhine;  and  the 
emperor  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  at  Frajikfort,  where  he 
lived  in  indigence  and  obscurity. 

The  British  and  Hanoverian  troops  under  the  earl  of  Stair 
and  the  Austrians  under  the  duke  of  Aremburg,  marched  from 
the  Low  Countries  towards  Germany.  The  French  army 
under  the  duke  of  Noailles  was  posted  near  Frankfort.  The 
king  of  England  had  arrived  in  the  camp  of  the  allies.  Noa- 
illes had  cut  off  all  their  supplies.  It  was  expected  that  they 
must  surrender,  or  be  cut  to  pieces  in  their  retreat  The  re- 
treat began :  their  route  lay  between  a  mountain  and  the 
Main.  Noailles  had  taken  possession  of  the  village  of  Det- 
tingen  in  their  front.  His  dispositions  were  admirable ;  but 
having  repassed  the  river,  his  nephew,  the  duke  of  Gram- 
mont,  advanced  (June  26),  into  a  small  plain  to  engage  the 
allies.  Noailles  saw,  but  could  not  remedy,  this  act  of  im- 
prudence :  the  impetuosity  of  the  French  was  forced  to  yield 
to  the  steadiness  of  the  allies,  and  they  were  driven  over  the 
Main  with  the  loss  of  5000  men.  The  victory  was  produc- 
tive of  no  important  results. 

The  haughty  conduct  of  Maria  Theresa  began  now  to  give 
great  offence  m  the  empire ;  several  princes  entered  into  a 
private  negotiation  with  Charles  VII. ;  the  king  of  Prussia 
promised  his  aid  on  his  usual  terms — increase  of  territory.  A  a.  a 
family  compact  was  entered  into  between  France  and  Spain,  »744 
and  an  invasion  of  England  attempted  in  favor  of  the  pre- 
tender.   In  Italy,  the  French  and  Spaniards  were  successful. 
A  treaty  was  formed  at  Frankfort  between  the  emperor,  the 
king  of  Prussia,  the  elector  palatine,  and  the  landgraf  of 
Hesse  Cassel.     The  French  arms  were  victorious  in  Flan- 
ders :    the  king  of  Prussia  invaded  Bohemia ;    but  he  was 
driven  out  of  it  with  the  loss  of  20,000  men,  and  all  his  bag 
gage  and  artillery.     The  emperor  had  recovered  his  domin- 


484  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  m 

ions  and  capital ;  but,  on  the  retreat  of  the  Prussians,  he  waa 
A.  D.  again  expecting  to  lose  tliem,  when  death  came  to  his  relief. 
1745.  His  son  Maximilian,  being  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  queen  of  Hungary.  She 
agreed  to  recognize  the  imperial  dignity  of  his  late  father, 
and  to  put  him  in  possession  of  all  his  liereditary  dominions; 
and  he  renounced  all  claim  to  any  part  of  the  Austrian  suc- 
cession, and  promised  to  give  his  vote  for  the  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  at  the  ensuing  election  of  an  emperor. 

France  and  Spain  resolved  to  continue  the  war.  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  who  still  directed  the  councils  of  the  latter,  was  de 
termined  to  gain  a  sovereignty  in  Italy  for  her  second  son 
Philip.  The  republic  of  Genoa  concluded  an  alliance  with 
the  house  of  Bourbon :  the  army  of  the  confederates  was 
more  than  double  that  opposed  to  it,  and  Milan,  Pavia,  and 
several  other  towns  were  taken.  A  large  French  army 
marched  to  the  Main,  to  hold  the  queen  of  Hungary  in  cheek; 
another  of  76,000  men,  under  marshal  Saxe,  invested  Tour- 
nay.  The  allied  army  of  50,000  men  resolved  to  attempt  its 
relief.  The  king  and  dauphin  were  in  the  French  camp,  and 
Saxe  posted  his  troops  strongly  behind  the  village  of  Fonte- 
noy.  (April  30).  The  allies  attacked  :  the  action  commenced 
at  nine,  and  lasted  till  three.  The  efforts  made  by  the  British 
infantry  were  incredible ;  but  not  being  duly  supported  by 
the  Dutch  and  Austrians,  they  were  obliged  to  retire,  after 
having  lost  10,000  men.  The  victory  of  the  French  cost 
them  nearly  an  equal  loss.  But  Tournay,  Ghent,  Ostend,  and 
several  other  towns,  became  their  reward. 

The  grand  duke  was  meanwhile  elected  emperor,  under 
the  title  of  Francis  I.  The  king  of  Prussia  gained  two  bloody 
victories  over  the  Austrian  troops,  and  he  entered  Saxony 
and  took  Dresden.  Peace  was  then  concluded  between  him 
and  the  queen  of  Hungary,  and  the  king  of  Poland. 
746  Brussels  was  taken  by  marshal  Saxe,  and  all  Flanders, 
Hainaiilt,  and  Brabant  reduced.  Prince  Charles  of  Lorrain 
was  unable  to  check  the  progress  of  Saxe ;  Namur  surren- 
dered, and  tlie  indecisive  battle  of  Roucoux  ended  the  cam- 
paio^n.  In  Italy,  the  arms  of  France  and  her  allies  were  less 
successful :  an  attack  on  the  camp  of  prince  Lichtenstein  at 
St.  Lazaro  failed,  with  great  loss.  The  king  of  Sardinia 
formed  a  junction  with  the  Austrians  ;  the  French  and  Span- 
iards were  driven  under  the  walls  of  Genoa,  and  forced  to 
retire  into  France  and  Savoy ;  and  Genoa  surrendered,  and 
was  treated  in  worse  than  the  usual  Austrian  mode  in  Italy 
The  Austrians,  under  count  Brovra,  50,000  strong,  invaded 


MASSACRE  OF   SETTLEIia 


A.  D. 


CHAP.  VII.  TIMES  OP  FREDERIC  II.  487 

Provence,  but  were  soon  obliged  to  retire,  and  the  Genoese 
rose  and  expelled  them  from  their  city. 

The  French,  under  Lowendahl,  invaded  the  United  Prov- 
inces, and  took  several  towns.  The  Dutch,  become  suspi-  174T 
cious  of  their  rulers,  renewed,  in  the  person  of  William  Henry, 
prince  of  Orange,  the  dignity  of  stadtholder,  which  had  been 
discontinued  since  the  death  of  William  III.  New  energy 
was  infused  into  their  councils.  The  allies,  under  tlie  duke 
of  Cumberland,  gave  battle  to  Saxe  at  Val,  on  his  way  to  in- 
vest Maestricht ;  but,  the  British  not  being  properly  supported, 
the  advantage  remained  with  the  French.  Bergen-op-Zoom 
was  besieged,  and  carried  by  assault  by  Lowendahl.  Nice 
and  Villafranca  were  meanwhile  taken  by  Belleisle  ir  Tti_y, 
and  an  army  of  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  formed,  but  were 
forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Genoa.  The  English  were  suc- 
cessful at  sea.     Louis  became  anxious  for  peace. 

A  congress  was  opened  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Saxe  laid  1743 
siege  to  Maestricht :  while  he  was  occupied  in  it,  a  cessation 
of  arms  was  ordered,  and  peace  was  concluded  at  tne  end  of 
the  year.  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla  were  ceded  to 
Philip,  with  provision  against  their  being  united  to  the  crown 
of  Spain,  or  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Silesia  and  Glatz  were 
guarantied  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  whose  selfish  policy  began 
the  war,  and  who  was  the  only  real  gainer  by  it.  France 
and  England,  by  all  their  waste  of  blood  and  treasure,  gained 
— nothing. 

England, 

During  these  continental  wars,  England  had  enjoyed  inter- 
nal tranquillity,  till,  in  17't5,  Charles  Edward,  son  of  the  pre- 
tender, landed  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  was  joined  by 
several  of  the  Highland  clans.  There  being  no  adequate 
force  there  to  oppose  them,  they  took  possession  of  Dunkeld, 
Perth,  Dundee,  and  Edinburgh.  At  Preston  Pans  they  de- 
feated the  royal  troops.  After  some  delay,  they  marched  into 
England,  took  Carlisle,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Derby.  But 
not  finding  themselves  to  be  joined  by  the  English  Jacobites, 
they  retreated  homewards.  Carlisle  was  retaken  by  the  duke 
of  Cumberland  ;  but  Stirling  fell  into  the  hands  of  tlie  rebels, 
and  general  Hawley,  who  was  coming  to  its  relief,  was  routed 
by  them  at  Falkirk.  On  the  advance  of  the  duke  of  Cutiv 
berland,  the  pretender  retired  northwards,  followed  by  the 
royal  army.  The  final  and  fatal  battle  to  the  hopes  of  the 
pretender  was  fought  at  CuUoden  (April  IG).  After  long  1741 
skulking  in  various  disguises,  and  experiencing  a  fidelity  and 
honor  creditable  to  the  national  character  he  made  his  escape 


488  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  ni 

to  France.  The  barbarity  exercised  by  the  victors  would  dis- 
grace the  best  of  causes.  Perhaps,  few  greater  instances  of 
human  folly  could  be  shown  than  tliis  blind  attachment  to  an 
obstinate,  tyrannical,  and  bigoted  family. 

Russia. 

In  the  semi-barbarous  court  of  Russia,  revolution  succeeded 
revolution,  and  ended  in  placing  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great  and  Catherine,  on  the  throne.  She  nominated  as 
A.  D.  her  successor  Charles  Peter  Ulrick,  duke  of  Holstein,  son  of 
1744.  her  sister  Anna.  She  had  him  styled  Grand  Prince,  and  he 
espoused  Sophia  Augustus,  princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who 
took  the  name  of  Catherine  Alexievna.  This  prince  had  had 
his  choice  of  the  crowns  of  Sweden  and  Russia.  He  unfor- 
tunately chose  the  latter. 

TTte  Seven  Years'  War. 

Europe  enjoyed  but  short  repose  after  the  peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  France  and  England  still  quarrelled  about 
boundaries  in  America,  and  still  carried  on  war  in  India. 
England,  as  war  seemed  inevitable,  wished  to  make  it  solely 
a  naval  one ;  and  it  was  arranged  to  put  Hanover  under  the 
protection  of  the  king  of  Prussia.  The  court  of  France  was 
displeased  at  this  project;  and  the  court  of  Vienna  hoped,  by 
means  of  this  displeasure,  to  recover  Silesia,  and  to  free  itself 
from  the  fears  it  entertained  of  the  ambition  of  Frederic.  The 

1755.  houses  of  Bourbon  and  Habsburg  laid  aside  their  jealousy,  of 
two  hundred  and  eighty  years'  standing,  and  concluded  an 
alliance:  they  were  joined  by  Sweden  and  Saxony.  The 
empress  of  Russia,  who  was  bound  to  aid  the  king  of  Prussia 
in  protecting  Hanover,  declared  against  him.  Spain,  Portugal, 
the  Italian  powers,  and  the  United  Provinces  remained  neu- 
tral.    Prussia  and  England  stood  alone. 

1756*,  The  island  of  Minorca  was  taken  by  the  French ;  and  their 
arms  were  successful  in  India  and  America.  The  king  of 
Prussia  entered  Saxony,  and  made  himselfmaster  of  Dresden: 
he  invaded  Bohemia,  and  routed  the  Austrians  at  Lowesitz ; 
the  Saxon  army  surrendered  at  Ebenhert. 

1757.  The  marshal  d'Estrees  passed  the  Rhine,  with  eighty 
thousand  men,  to  invade  Hanover.  The  duke  of  Cumber- 
land, with  forty  thousand  Hanoverians  and  Hessians,  attempt- 
ed its  defence,  but  was  driven  across  the  Weser ;  and  the 
French  became  masters  of  the  electorate.  The  Prussians 
entered  Bohemia  in  four  divisions :  that  commanded  by  the 
prince  of  Bevern  obliged  the  Austrians  to  retire  at  Reichen 
berg     This  division,  and  that  of  marshal  Schwerin,  united 


CHAP.  VIL  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II.  489 

with  the  one  led  by  the  king,  engaged  the  Austrian  arin|r 
under  prince  Charles  of  Lorrain  and  count  Brown,  at  Prague. 
The  Prussians  were  victorious,  and  besieged  the  Austrians 
in  that  town ;  but  having  been  defeated  at  Colin,  they  raised 
the  siege,  and  evacuated  Bohemia.  The  combined  German 
and  French  army  had  meantime  advanced  into  Saxony:  the 
king  of  Prussia  hastened  to  Dresden,  assembled  an  army,  and 
at  the  village  of  Rosbach  (Nov.  5)  gave  them  battle,  with 
but  half  their  number  of  men.  His  victory  was  brilliant,  his 
loss  being  but  five  hundred,  while  that  of  the  enemy  was  nine 
thousand  killed,  wounded,  and  taken.  The  Austrians  had  de- 
feated the  prince  of  Bevern,  and  taken  Breslau.  Frederic 
gave  them  battle,  and  defeated  them  at  Lissa  :  Breslau  was 
recovered.  The  Russians,  who  had  entered  the  Prussian  do- 
minions, were  forced,  by  want  of  provisions,  to  return  home : 
the  Swedes  were  driven  under  the  walls  of  Stralsund :  the 
Hanoverians  rose  against  the  French ;  but  the  English  were 
unsuccessful  in  North  America,  and  at  sea. 

At  the  head  of  the  Hanoverians,  prince  Ferdinand  of  a.  d 
Brunswick  obliged  the  French  to  cross  the  Rhine,  and  de-  I'TSS 
feated  them  at  Crevelt.  The  king  of  Prussia  recovered 
Schweidnitz,  and  invested  Olmutz ;  but  the  approach  of  a 
large  Russian  force  obliged  him  to  raise  the  siege.  At  Zorn- 
dorf  he  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter.  At  Hochkirchen 
he  was  himself  defeated  by  the  Austrians :  he  afterwards 
forced  them  to  retire  into  Bohemia.  Marshal  Daun  was 
obliged  to  retire  from  before  Dresden,  and  Frederic  entered 
it  in  triumph. 

The  English  admirals  Hawke  and  Anson  restored  the  lus- 
tre of  the  British  arms  at  sea.  In  America,  the  islands  of 
Cape  Breton  and  St.  John's  were  taken  by  general  Amherst ; 
the  French  settlements  on  tlie  coast  of  Africa  were  reduced. 
In  India,  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of  the  French. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  next  campaig-n,  tlie  Prussian  1759 
arms  were  victorious  on  all  sides.  Tlie  French  had  made 
themselves  masters  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  Prince  Fer- 
dinand, with  an  inferior  force,  attacked  the  duke  of  Broglio 
at  Bergen,  in  its  vicinity,  but  was  forced  to  retire  with  some 
loss.  The  .French  reduced  Minden,  Miinster,  and  some 
other  places.  To  save  Hanover,  the  prince  found  it  necessary 
to  give  them  battle :  the  conflict  took  place  (Aug.  8)  at 
Minden :  the  French  were  defeated.  The  blame  of  the  vic- 
tory not  being  complete  was  laid  on  lord  George  Sackville, 
the  Eng^lish  commander. 

The  Russians  defeated  the  Prussian  general  Wedel  in  Sile- 
iia.     Frederic  attacked  the  combined  Austrian  and  Russian 


490  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

army,  of  eighty  thousand  men,  at  Cunersdorf ;  and  the  hor- 
rible carnage  of  the  day  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Prussians: 
yet  Frederic,  almost  immediately  after,  forced  his  enemies  to 
act  on  the  defensive. 

The  French  army  in  Westphalia  was  extremely  numerous 
a  portion  of  it  was  defeated  by  prince  Ferdinand  at  Warburg 
but  the  French  remained  masters  of  Hesse.     The  Austrian 
and  Russians  poured  into  the  dominions  Eind  conquests  of 
Frederic,  and  in  his  camp  at  Lignitz  he  was  in  danger  of  be 
ing  surrounded  by  three  hostile  armies.     He   advanced  to 
meet,  and  defeated  that  of  general  Laudohn,  and  thus  escaped 
but  the  Russians  and  Austrians  entered  Brandenburg,  and 
pillaged  Berlin.     Frederic  rushed  into  Saxony  at  the  head 
of  fifty  thousand  men,  followed  by  Daun  with  seventy  thou- 
sand men ;  and  at  Torgau  the  Prussian  monarch  gained  a 
hard-fought  battle. 

The  English  took  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  m  the  West 
Indies :  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga  were  taken  by  gene- 
ral Amherst.  Quebec,  after  the  defeat  of  the  P'rench  army 
by  general  Wolfe,  surrendered.  The  British  arms  were  vic- 
torious in  India.  Admirals  Boscawen  and  Hawke  defeated 
the  French  fleets  otF  Cape  Lagos  and  Belleisle. 
A.  D.      George  II.  died ;  but  his  successor  resolved  to  continue  the 

1761.  vvar.  A  family  compact  was  concluded  between  the  courts 
of  Versailles  and  Madrid.  Prince  Ferdinand  repelled  an  at- 
tack of  the  French  armies  at  Kirche  Denkern ;  and  Belleisle 
was  taken  by  a  British  force. 

1762.  War  was  now  mutually  declared  by  the  courts  of  London 
and  Madrid.  Portugal,  refusing  to  join  the  alliance  against 
England,  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards;  but  they  were 
driven  out  of  it  by  the  British  and  native  troops.  Prince 
Ferdinand  was  everywhere  successful  in  Westphalia. 

The  death  of  the  empress  of  Russia  relieved  the  king  of 
Prussia  from  his  apparently  desperate  situation.  Peter  HI. 
was  mild  and  pacific :  he  made  a  peace  and  alliance  with  the 
Prussian  monarch.  Frederic  carried  on  the  war  with  viffor 
against  the  Austrians ;  but  the  dethronement  and  death  of 
his  Russian  ally  perple.xed  him,  as  he  knew  not  what  the 
policy  of  Catherine  II.  might  be :  she  continued  the  peace, 
b\it  recalled  her  troops.  Frederic  recovered  Silesia.  A  ces- 
sation of  arms  was  made  for  Saxony  and  Silesia,  Frederic 
ravaged  Bohemia  and  Franconia, 

The  British  fleets  and  troops  took  Martinique  and  the 
Havannah,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  Manilla,  in  the  Philippine 
islands.     Negotiations  for  peace  had  long  been  going  on,  and 

1763.  the  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris  (Feb.  10) ;   and 


Oeneral  Wolfe. 


Death  of  General  Wolfe. 


-■HAP   VIL  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  H.  493 

<Dout  the  same  time  another  at  Huberlsburg,  between  the  em- 
tress-queen  anc  *he  king  of  Prussia. 

England  obtained  all  Canada,  and  the  islands  of  St.  John 
«nd  Cape  Breton,  great  part  of  Louisiana,  her  conquests  on 
ihe  Senegal,  the  island  of  Grenada :  all  her  other  conquests 
she  restored.  Prussia  and  Austria  agreed  to  place  themselves 
on  the  footing  they  were  on  at  the  commencement  of  hos- 
tilities. 

Thus  ended  the  Seven  Years'  War — a  war  which  had 
caused  such  an  efRision  of  blood  and  treasure :  it  ended  with- 
out being-  productive  of  any  real  advantage  to  any  one  of  the 
parties. 

Suppression  of  the  Jesuits. 

Europe  now  reposed  from  war.  This  period  of  tranquillity 
IS  marked  by  the  suppression  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
This  order  was  founded  by  a  soldier,  Ignatius  Loyola,  in  the 
time  of  Charles  V.  Retaining  his  military  ideas,  Ignatius 
imposed  on  the  members  of  his  new  order  the  strictest  obe- 
dience ;  but  his  rules  were  simple  and  innocent.  His  suc- 
cessors, Lainez  and  Aquaviva,  formed  it  into  an  institution 
which  might  vie  with  any  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  It 
speedily  developed  its  powers  ;  the  Jesuits  became  directors 
of  the  consciences  of  the  great,  and  teachers  of  the  young ; 
they  excelled  in  learning ;  they  were  the  most  zealous  of 
missionaries.  Forming  a  body,  whose  soul  was  the  general 
of  the  order  at  Rome,  they  were  the  chief  stay  of  papal  power, 
and  on  them  rested  the  remaining  faint  hopes  of  regaining 
spiritual  dominion.  But  with  all  its  great  qualities  and  high 
aspirations,  the  order  was  fated  to  meet  with  no  final  suc- 
cess ;  the  spirit  of  the  age  was  against  it ;  its  assumptions 
were  too  high,  its  moral  system  too  lax,  its  intrigues  and 
movements  too  dark  and  complicated. 

The  marquis  of  Pombal,  the  Richelieu  of  Portugal,  bated 
the  order,  which   stood    in   his   way:  vile  calumnies  were 
forged  against  them,  and  they  were  expelled  from  Portugal, 
The  example  was  followed  by  France,  then  by  Spain,  Na- 
ples, and  finally  by  Austria.     Their  property  was  seized  by 
the  rapacious  governments:    Spain  and  Portugal,  the  most 
bigoted  nations,  were  their  most  relentless  persecutors.     It 
was  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  on  a  minor  scale.     The 
unhappy  fathers  were  forced  on  shipboard,  and  landed  in  the 
papal  states.     The   good  Clement   XIII.    remonstrated — he  x.  d. 
could  do  no  more — in  their  favor:  the   excellent  Clement  lT7a 
XIV,  yielded  to  the  ^orrent,  and  suppressed  the  order 
"42 


494  mSTORT  0?  THB  WORLD.  PAOT  TO. 

First  Partition  of  Poland. 

An  event  now  occurred  which  throws  into  the  shade  all 
that  we  have  previously  seen  of  injustice  and  aggression. 
4.  D.  Tlie  empress  Catherine  II.  the  northern  Clytemnestra,  had 
762.  ascended  the  throne  of  her  deposed  and  murdered  husband, 
and  had  piously  restored  to  the  clergy  their  beards,  pictures, 
and  revenues,  of  which  he  had  deprived  them.  Augustus 
III.  king  of  Poland  dying,  the  diet  assembled  at  Warsaw  to 
choose  a  successor  proved  a  stormy  one :  the  pacific  empress 
considerately  sent  a  body  of  troops  thither  to  preserve  the 
peace ;  and  Stanislaus  Poniatovsky,  the  candidate  whom  she 
764.  favored,  was  of  course  elected.  He  mounted  the  throne  in 
tranquillity ;  but  that  state  did  not  long  endure.  Animosities 
broke  out  between  the  Catholic  party  and  that  of  the  dissi- 
dents, who  demanded  an  equality  of  rights:  the  latter  were 
supported  by  the  empress  of  Russia  and  the  king  of  Prussia. 
Catherine  fomented  the  disorders ;  her  troops  behaved  with 
the  greatest  insolence ;  a  civil  war,  and  a  war  against  the 
Russian  intruders,  agitated  the  unhappy  country.  At  length 
the  time  seemed  to  be  arrived  for  the  execution  of  a  project, 
first  conceived  by  the  royal  philosopher  of  Sans  Souci, — the 
tranquillizing  of  Poland  by  its  dismemberment.  Religion  ex- 
cited some  qualms  in  the  mind  of  Maria  Theresa ;  it  was, 
however,  forced  to  yield  to  the  arguments  of  her  enlightened 
son,  Joseph.  On  the  part  of  Catherine,  no  one  lotiked  for 
scruples. 

The  plunderers  would  act  with  some  faint  semblance  of 
justice ;  some  ridiculous  old  claims  were  therefore  trumped 
up  against  Poland.  The  king  and  people  appealed  to  justice ; 
a  weak  appeal  against  Russian  bayonets.  All  good  men  be 
held  with  abhorrence  the  flagrant  breach  of  divine  and  human 
laws,  and  the  hypocrisy  employed  to  veil  it :  the  remaining 
powers  of  Europe  were  not  in  a  condition  to  interfere.  A 
third  part  of  Poland  was  divided  among  the  diademed  rob- 
bers. A  diet  was  called  to  sanction  the  dismemberment  of 
their  country ;  three  foreign  armies  were  at  hand  to  prevent 
tumult :  money  and  promises  were  distributed,  and  a  majority 
of  six  votes  in  the  senate,  of  one  in  the  assembly  of  nuncios, 
sanctioned  this  detestable  iniquity.' 

The  ravished  provinces  were,  perhaps,  better  under  their 
new  owners;  for  Frederic  and  Catheruie  were  both  wise 
sovereigns,  and  Joseph  thought  himself  an  adept  in  legislative 
wisdom ;  but  eternal  infamy  will  pursue  their  names,  and  the 
partition  of  Poland  disgrace  the  eighteenth  century  of  the 
Christian  era. 


CHAP.  Vn.  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II.  495 

Turkish  War. 

The  afRiirs  of  Poland  involved  Russia  in  a  war  with  Tur- 
key. Large  armies  on  both  sides  advanced  towards  the  Dan-  4.  i^ 
ube.  The  war  commenced  with  the  ravage  of  the  frontiers.  1769 
In  the  spring  fhe  standard  of  the  prophet  Was  displayed.  The 
Russians  were  driven  by  the  vizier  beyond  the  Dneister.  The 
able  vizier  was  recalled ;  his  successor  crossed  the  Dneister, 
and  was  defeated :  Chotin  and  other  fortresses  were  taken. 

A  Russian  fleet  sailed  round  Europe,  and  appeared  in  the  1770 
Grecian  seas.  The  Turks  had  driven  the  Russians  out  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia ;  but  the  vizier  was  defeated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Pruth.  Bender  was  stormed,  after  a  siege 
of  two  months,  and  experienced  Russian  barbarity.  The 
Greeks  of  the  Morea  rose  at  the  call  of  Russia  ;  the  pasha  of 
Bosnia  entered  it  with  30,000  men ;  at  Modon  the  hopes  of 
Greece  were  crushed.  The  Turkish  fleet  was  defeated  at 
Epidaurus,  and  again  defeated  at  Chios,  and  burnt  at  Chesme. 
Syria  and  Egypt  were  in  rebellion.  The  plague  broke  oui, 
at  Yassy,  and  spread  to  Moscow,  where  90,000  persons  died 
of  it 

The  Russians  broke  into  and  seized  the  Crimea.   The  jani-  17-2 
zaries  rose,  murdered  their  aga,  and  set  fire  to  their  camp. 
Ali,  the  Egyptian  pasha,  fell  in  battle  against  his  brother-in- 
law  Mohammed,  and  his  head  was  sent  to  Constantinople. 

The  Russians  crossed  the  Danube :  they  were  twice  forced  1773 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Silistria,  and  they  lost  at  Varna  the 
greater  part  of  their  artillery.     Hassan  Pasha  swore  to  the 
sultan  to  drive  them  over  the  Danube,  and  he  performed  his 
oath. 

Mustafa  HI.  died,  and  appointed  his  brother  Abd-ul-Hamed  1774 
to  succeed,  instead  of  his  young  son  Selim.  As  no  largesses 
were  distributed,  the  janizaries  would  serve  no  longer. 
"  Peace  is  necessary,"  said  the  mufti  to  the  sultan,  "  since 
thy  people  will  fight  no  more."  Catherine  was  also  anxious 
to  end  the  war,  and  peace  was  concluded  at  Kainargi.  The 
free  navigation  of  tlie  Black  Sea  and  some  territory  were 
ceded  to  Russia. 

American  Revolutionary  War. 

Northern  America  had  been  chiefly  colonized  by  the  Eng- 
lish; tlie  settlements  of  the  Dutch  and  French  were  acquired 
by  conquest.  All  these  colonies  were  in  the  enjoyment  of 
liberal  and  jwpular  constitutions;  the  country  was  highly 
fertile,  population  rapidly  increased,  the  energy  and  the  bold- 
ness of  youtli  animated  the  people,  and  crowds  of  colonists 


406  raSTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

from  Europe  annually  arrived  on  their  shores.     The  mother 
country  being  oppressed  by  debt,  a  plan  was  devised  to  make 
.  I,  the  colonies  contribute  to  her  relief,  and  a  stamp-duty  on  va- 
765!  rious  arti<-,les  was  imposed.     The  Americans  remonstrated ;  a 
176S.  change  took  place  in  the  ministry,  and  the  act  was  repealed. 
The  spirit  of  oppression  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  resistance 
on  the  other,  still  continued ;  and  when  the  parliament  im- 
posed a  duty  on  tea,  the  Americans  refused  to  pay  it,  and  at 
Boston  the  tea  was  flung  into  the  sea.     The  British  parlia- 
ment passed  bills  for  shutting  up  the  port  of  Boston,  and  al 
T74  tering  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts.  The  colonists  called 
a  provincial   congress,   and   addressed  a  manly  petition  to 
the  king.     It  was  not  received.     The  king  and  parliament 
in  their  wisdom,  or  rather  in  their  pride,  determined  on  what 
are  called  strong  measures,  and  a  civil  war  began. 
1775.      In  the  contest  between  England  and  her  American  colonies, 
the  first  blood  was  shed  at  Lexington,  in  New-England.  Eight 
hundred  British  grenadiers  and  light  infantry  were  sent  out 
from  Boston,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  some  military 
stores  collected  at  Concord.     On  receiving  intelligence  of 
this  movement,  the  provincials  of  that  neighborhood  rose  en 
masse.    A  small  body  of  them,  appearing  at  Lexington,  were 
fired  upon  by  the  British,  who  then  proceeded  to  Concord  and 
destroyed  the  public  stores;  but  they  were  here  attacked 
with  such  spirit  by  the  provincials,  as  to  compel  their  imme- 
diate retreat  to  Boston,  with  the  loss  of  sixty-five  killed  and 
two  hundred  and  eight  wounded  and  prisoners.     From  this 
day,  (April  18th,)  the  British  were  ibrmally  besieged  in  Boston. 

On  the  17th  June,  the  provincials,  having  thrown  up  a  re- 
doubt on  Bunker's  Hill,  a  position  which  commanded  Boston, 
were  attacked  by  3000  British,  under  generals  Howe  and 
Pigot.  The  British  were  twice  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  On 
the  third  attack,  being  reinforced,  and  the  Americans  having 
exhausted  their  ammunition,  the  redoubt  was  carried  with 
the  loss  of  1054  British,  and  450  Americans. 

General  Montgomery  entered  Canada  with  a  small  force, 
and  fell  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Quebec. 

The  first  provincial  congress  had  assembled  at  Concord, 
Massachusetts,  in  1774.  A  second  assembled  at  Philadelphia 
(May  1775),  appointed  John  Hancock  their  president,  and 
George  Washington  commander-in-chief  of  the  provincial 
forces.  He  joined  the  army  at  Cambridge  in  July,  and  held  the 
British  under  general  Howe  closely  besieged  in  Boston  till 
March,  1776,  when  the  town  was  evacuated,  and  Washing 
1776.  ton  entered  it  in  triumph. 

The  British  admiral  Sir  Peter  Purker,  with  a  hetivy  nava 


Burrender  of  Burgoyno. 


CIIAP.  VIL  TIMES  OP  FREDERIC  II.  499 

force,  was  defeated  in  an  attempt  on  Charleston,  the  capital 
of  South  Carolina,  by  four  hundred  militia  and  soldiers  of  the 
line  intrenched  on  Sullivan's  Island,  under  colonel  Moultrie. 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  the  congress  declared  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of  America. 

New- York  was  occupied  by  the  British,  under  general 
Howe,  and  the  Americans  were  compelled  to  retreat  from 
New-Jersey.     Th,e  latter,  however,  was  soon  recovered  by  a.  n 
general  Washington,  in  the  decisive  actions  of  Trenton  and  1771 
Princeton. 

General  Washington,  with  an  inferior  force,  hazarded  an 
engagement  with  Sir  W.  Howe,  near  the  river  Brandywine, 
and  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  1200  men.  This  was  the 
first  action  in  which  the  marquis  de  La  Fayette  was  engaged. 
He  was  a  young  French  nobleman,  who  had  abandoned  hia 
brilliant  prospects  at  the  court  of  his  sovereign,  to  embrace 
Jie  cause  of  liberty. 

The  English  took  Philadelphia,  and  defeated  the  republic- 
ans, who  attacked  them  at  Germantown ;  but  general  Bur- 
goyne,  who,  having  reduced  Ticonderoga,  was  advancing  to 
join  general  Howe,  was  attacked  at  Saratoga,  by  colonel  Ar- 
nold :  general  Gates  coming  up  with  a  considerable  force, 
prepared  to  surround  Burgoyne,  who,  after  a  fruitless  attempt 
to  force  his  way,  was  obliged  to  fall  back  on  Saratoga,  and 
there  to  capitulate.  His  troops,  5790  in  number,  were  to  be 
sent  to  England,  and  not  to  serve  again  in  North  America 
during  the  war.  The  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  in  the 
preceding  part  of  the  expedition,  amounted  to  upwards  of 
4000  men. 

France  had  long  been  watching  the  progress  of  the  con-  1778 
test.  This  last  event  decided  her,  and  an  alliance  was  formed 
with  the  infant  republic.  The  court  of  Spain  soon  after  fol- 
lowed her  example.  An  indecisive  engagement  took  place 
between  the  British  and  French  fleets  off  Ushant :  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  took  the  chief  command  in  America:  he  forthwith 
abandoned  Philadelphia,  and  retired  to  New- York.  An  at- 
tempt on  Rhode  Island,  by  the  American  general  Sullivan 
and  the  French  admiral  d'Estaine,  proved  a  failure.  Com- 
missioners were  sent  out  from  England  to  treat  with  the 
Americans  ;  but  as  the  latter  insisted  on  the  recognition  of 
neir  independence,  nothing  could  be  effected. 

Savannah,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  having  been  taken  by 
colonel  Campbell  with  2000  British  troops,  the  whole  prov- 
ince of  Georgia  seemed  reunited  to  the  British  crown.     An  1779 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  recover  Savannah  by  gen- 
eral Lmcoln,  aided  by  a  naval  force  under  d'Estaine. 


500  raSTOIlY  OF  THE  WORIiD.  PART  III 

780.  Charleston  capitulated  to  general  Clinton,  and  the  province 
of  South  Carolina  was  forced  into  a  temporary  submission  to 
ihe  British.  A  provincial  force,  consisting-  principally  of  mi- 
litia, under  general  Gates,  was  defeated  at  Camden  by  the 
British  under  earl  Cornwallis  and  lord  Rawdon.  In  this  cam- 
paign occurred  the  defection  of  Arnold,  and  the  detection 
and  execution  of  the  British  major  Andre  as  a  spy.  Sir 
George  Rodney  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  cape  St  Vin- 
cent, and  thrice  engaged,  though  not  with  decided  success, 
the  French  fleet  under  count  de  Guichen. 

The  jealousy  of  the  continental  powers  of  Europe  now 
showed  itself,  by  the  armed  neutrality,  which  they  all,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  tsarina  of  Russia,  now  entered  into  to 
resist  the  right  of  search  and  blockade  claimed  by  England. 
A  correspondence  between  Holland  and  the  United  States 
relating  to  a  loan  and  treaty  being  discovered,  England  de- 
clared war  against  the  Dutch ;  and  the  island  of  St.  Eustatia, 
a  rich  magazine  of  wealth,  was  taken  and  plundered  by  a 
nrval  force  under  admiral  Rodney.  While  his  fleet  was  weak- 
ened by  a  detachment  sent  to  England  with  the  produce  of 
the  sales  of  confiscated  property,  the  French  were  enabled 
to  gain  a  superiority  on  the  American  coast,  which  led  to  the 
total  ruin  of  the  British  army  in  America. 
;781.  The  Spaniards  laid  siege  to  Gibraltar,  which  was  gallantly 
defended ;  but  Minorca  was  forced  to  surrender.  Indecisive 
sea-actions  were  fought  between  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and  the 
Dutch,  and  between  Sir  S.  Hood  and  the  count  de  Grasse. 
The  island  of  Tobago  surrendered  to  the  French. 

The  French  admiral  now  resolved  to  assist  the  Americans 
with  vigor.  They  had  defeated  colonel  Tarleton  at  the  Cow- 
pens,  in  Carolina,  and,  though  not  victorious  in  their  attack 
on  Cornwallis  at  Guilford,  had  caused  him  considerable  loss. 

General  Greene  was  defeated  by  lord  Rawdon  at  Hobkirk ; 
but  soon  after  attacked  the  British  force  under  colonel  Stew- 
art at  Eutaw  Springs,  and  overthrew  them  with  a  loss  on 
their  side  of  eleven  hundred  men,  including  prisoners  and 
wounded.  This  action  terminated  the  war  in  South  Caro- 
lina. 

Earl  Cornwallis  having  retreated  from  Carolina,  took  a  sta- 
tion at  Yorktown,  on  York  river,  in  Virginia,  and  had  fortified 
it  and  Gloucester  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  count  de  Grasse, 
with  a  French  fleet  of  28  sad,  having  entered  the  Chesa- 
peake, prevented  admiral  Greaves  affording  any  relief  to 
Cornwallis,  and  general  Clinton  failed  to  send  any  aid  from 
New- York.  A  combined  American  and  French  armv  under 
Washington  and  Rochambeau,  besieged  him,  and  after  some 


TBS  INSTALLATION  OF  WABHINeTOB. 


oHAP,  VII.  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II  503 

weeks  Comwallis  was  compelled  to  capitulate.  The  troops, 
7000  in  number,  were  made  prisoners  of  war ;  the  ships  be- 
came prizes  to  the  French.  i.  d. 

The  war  in  America  was  now  ended.  The  British  ministry  l78a 
was  changed.   England  saw  the  folly  of  protracting  a  useless 
and  destructive  contest.     She  acknowledged  (Jan.  20)  the  1783 
independence  of  the  United  States.     A  new  constitution  of 
government  was  formed,  and  Washington  was  chosen  presi- 
dent ^  n      1      J    r 

Of  the  injustice  of  this  war  on  the  part  of  England,  ftw 
now  have  any  doubt ;  its  importance,  as  an  example,  has  been 
felt  in  every  subsequent  struggle  for  Aberty  which  the  world 
has  witnessed. 

India. 

The  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  were  amaz- 
ingly rapid.  At  the  time  they  fell  under  the  yoke  of  Spain,  ;i58t 
they  were  all-powerfiil  on  the  coasts  of  India,  possessed  the 
Moluccas,  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  the  isles  of  Sunda,  and  the 
trade  of  China  and  Japan.  The  Dutch  used  to  purchase  the 
products  of  the  East  at  Lisbon,  and  distribute  them  over  Eu- 
rope. Philip  II.  having  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  them 
as  rebels,  they  made  their  way  to  India,  and  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  Java,  and  an  East  India  company  was  established. 
While  Portugal  was  united  with  Spain,  they  made  constant  1595 
war  on  her  in  the  East,  and  in  a  few  years  they  left  her  no- 
thing there  but  Goa. 

T^e  English  appeared  in  India  a  few  years  after  the  Dut<?h.  IGOO 
They  also  had  formed  a  company.  Their  first  settlements 
were  in  Java,  Banda,  Amboyna,  and  Poleron.  The  Dutch 
were  jealous  of  them,  and  the  rival  companies  carried  on  war 
against  each  other.  A  treaty  was  concluded  to  arrange  their  1623 
differences ;  but  the  Dutch,  regardless  of  it,  barbarously  mas- 
sacred the  English  at  Ambcyna  and  other  places,  and  ex- 
pelled them  from  the  Spice  Islands.  The  supineness  of  James 
I.,  and  afterwards  the  civil  wars  of  England,  prevented  the 
nation  attending  to  the  East.  Cromwell  had  a  British  spirit; 
the  company  throve  in  his  time :  Charles  II.  betrayed  and 
oppressed  it. 

The  great  Colbert  had  formed  a  French  East  India  com-  16G4 
pany;   their  chief  settlement  was   at  Pondicherry,  on  the 
Coromandcl  coast.    Thus  the  three  greatest  maritime  powers 
were  established  in  India,  and  the  wars  of  Europe  were  now 
to  be  extended  to  that  distant  region. 

During  the  war  of  the  succession,  the  French  had  taken  1746 
the  En'rlish  settlement  of  Madras.     At  the  peace  o^  Aix-la- 


504  HISTOKT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

Chapelle  it  was  restored.  M.  Dupleix,  the  governor  of  Pon- 
dicherry,  formed  a  grand  plan  for  gaining  territory  for  the 
French  India  Company.  Having  a  good  body  of  troops  under 
him,  he,  by  their  valor,  and  his  own  mtrigues,  managed  tc 
have  the  candidate  he  sided  with  appointed  subahdar  of  the 
Decan,  and  to  get  the  nabobship  of  the  Carnatic  for  Chunda 
Sahib,  for  whose  life  he  was  himself  appointed  nabob  of  tliat 
province.  Dupleix  aimed  at  obtaining  all  the  country  be- 
tween Masulipatam,  Goa,  and  Cape  Comorin.  Mohammed 
AH,  son  of  the  late  nabob  of  Arcot,  implored  the  assistance 

^  D  of  ^he  English,  who  gave  him  some  reinforcements,  and  sev- 

751  eral  actions  took  place.  In  this  war  the  famous  Clive  first 
appeared ;  with  a  small  force  he  took  Arcot,  and  when  Chunda 
Sahib  besieged  it  with  a  large  army,  he  defended  it  with 
amazing  talent  and  courage,  and  repelled  the  assailants.  Re^ 
inforced  by  colonel  Kirkpatrick,  he  pursued  and  defeated  the 
enemy  on  the  plains  of  Ami.  The  rajah  of  Tanjore,  and 
other  princes,  joined  the  English :  Chunda  and  the  French 
were  several  times  defeated.  Mohammed  was  acknowledged 
nabob  of  Arcot ;  the  French  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  ac- 
quisitions ;  and  peace  was  about  to  be  made,  when  a  new  wai 
broke  out  in  Europe. 

The  three  rival  companies  had  early  established  factories  iv 
Bengal ;  but  the  good  policy  of  tlie  Mogul  government  pre- 

1696.  vented  their  having  any  garrison  or  works  of  defence.  Oa 
occasion  of  a  rebellion  of  the  rajahs  west  of  the  Hooglee,  the 
factories  augmented  their  soldiery  and  declared  for  the  nabob, 
who  gave  them  permission  to  put  their  settlements  in  a  state 
of  defence.  The  Dutch  then  fortified  their  factory  at  Hoog- 
lee, the  French  theirs  at  Chandernagore,  and  the  English 
theirs  of  Fort  William  at  Calcutta. 

The  English  obtained  some  advantages  from  the  court  of 
Delhi,  and   increased   their   wealth  and   power.     Suraj-ud- 

1766.  Dowlah,  the  subahdar  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  offended 
at  their  abuse  of  their  privileges,  and  by  their  protecting  a 
nobleman  who  had  fled  from  his  vengeance,  suddenly  marched 
with  50,000  men  against  Calcutta.  After  an  ineffectual  re- 
sistance, the  governor  and  all  but  200  of  the  garrison  of  Fort 
William  escaped  on  shipboard.  Mr.  Holwell,  who  now  took 
die  command,  soon  saw  himself  and  his  unhappy  companions 
immured  by  the  cruel  subahdar  in  the  Black  Hole,  where 
nearly  the  whole  perished.  The  affairs  of  the  English  in 
Bengal  seemed  now  entirely  ruined. 
■"ftT.  But  the  aSairs  of  the  company  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel 
being  now  settled,  admiral  Watson  took  on  board  colonel 
Clive  ajid  some  troops,  and  sailed  for  Calcutta.    That  town 


CHAP.  Vll.  TIMES  OF  FREDERIC  II.  505 

was  recovered,  Hooglee  reduced,  and  the  Bubahdar  obliged  to 
eue  for  peace.  He  agreed  to  restore  every  thing,  and  to 
allovi'  the  presidency  to  extend  over  thirty-eight  neighboring 
villages.  The  English  now  turned  their  arms  against  the 
French,  and  besieged  and  took  Chandernagore.  Clive  aimed 
at  farther  humbling  the  subahdar,  who  was  backward  in  ful- 
filling the  treaty.  In  artifice,  dissimulation,  and  what  else  is 
dignified  with  the  name  of  policy,  he  was  a  full  match  for  an 
Asiatic :  he  secretly  gained  Jaffier,  the  commander  of  the 
troops  of  the  province,  and  he  persuaded  tlie  subahdar  to  dis- 
band the  forces  he  had  collected  at  Plassy.  Clive  advanced 
to  take  that  important  post ;  but  the  subahdar  had  reassembled 
his  army,  and  occupied  it.  His  forces  were  50,000  foot,  and 
18,000  horse ;  those  of  Clive  1000  Europeans,  and  2000  Se- 
poys; yet  he  ventured  to  give  battle,  and  gained  a  victory. 
Jaffier  was  acknowledged  by  him  subahdar.  Suraj-ud-Dowlah 
was  taken  and  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  son  of  Jaffier ; 
and  the  latter  agreed  to  pay  his  allies  the  sum  of  2,750,000 
pounds  sterling,  and  to  enlarge  their  territory. 

The  war  was  carried  on  between  the  French  and  English  ^.  ^ 
in  the  Carnatic.  Count  Lally,  the  French  commander,  being  1768 
largely  reinforced  from  home,  reduced  Cudalore  and  Fort  St 
David.     Next  year  he  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Madras.     The  175S 
British  now  took  the  field,  and  reduced  Masulipatam  and  Con- 
jeveram.     Wandewash  was  reduced  by  colonel  Coote,  who 
defeated  a  strong  army  led  by  Lally  to  attempt  its  recovery. 
Surat  was  taken  by  an  English  force  from  Bombay ;  and  the 
Dutch  were  well  castigated  in  Bengal  for  their  designs  against 
the  English  in  that  quarter. 

The  English  had  deposed  their  ally  Jaffier  in  Bengal  (1760), 
and  placed  Cossim  on  the  musnud.  Their  cupidity  made 
them  seize  a  pretext  for  making  war  on  this  prince :  Uiey  de- 
prived him  of  the  whole  province  of  Bengal,  and  Jaffier  was 
again  declared  subahdar.  The  Great  Mogul  and  the  nabob  1765 
of  Oude  in  vain  supported  Cossim :  they  were  obliged  to  sue 
for  peace.  In  the  Mysore  a  war  was  carried  on,  mostly  to 
the  advantage  of  the  English,  against  Hyder  Ali. 

During  the  American  war,  the  French  lost  all  their  set- 
tlements in  India.  The  company  carried  on  a  vigorous  war 
against  Hyder  Ali  and  the  Mahrattas.  Colonels  Baillie  and  1778 
Fletcher  were  with  their  whole  force  taken  or  slain  by  Hyder 
and  his  son  Ti])poo;  but  Sir  Eyre  Coote  defeated  them  in  1781 
several  engagements.  Afler  the  death  of  his  father,  Tippoo 
continued  the  war. 

The  English  had  now  an  extensive  empire  in  India.  Much 
is  it  to  be  deplored  tha*  '"  the  acquisition  and  management 

43 


506  mSTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PABT  m 

of  it,  the  rights  of  humanity  and  justice  were  so  frequently 
trampled  upon.  It  is  an  important  inquiry  what  has  been  or 
is  to  be  tlie  advantage  or  evil  to  India  and  Britain  from  their 
close  connexion. 

Persia. 

k  D.      When  the  dynasty  of  Nadir  had  been  extinguished  in  Per- 

"^  sia,  the  sovereignty  of  tliat  country  was  contended  for  by  the 
different  rival  chiefs,  whose  claims  were  all  successively 
forced  to  yield  to  the  power  and  the  merit  of  Kerreem  Khan, 
a  chief  of  the  native  Persian  tribe  of  Zend.  The  reign  of 
this  excellent  prince,  who  occupied  the  throne  twenty-six 
years,  is  a  delightful  object  of  contemplation  amid  the  scenes 
of  barbarity  characteristic  of  eastern  despotism.  Justice, 
clemency,  moderation,  goodness  of  heart,  distinguished  all  hia 
actions.     He  lived  and  died  happily  amidst  a  grateful  and 

1779.  contented  people. 

On  the  death  of  Kerreem  Khan,  his  brothers  and  nephews 
contended  for  the  vacant  throne.     After  the  usual  series  of 

1789.  atrocities  attendant  on  such  an  event,  the  power  remained  in 
the  hands  of  Lootf  Ali  Khan,  a  youth  of  astonishing  military 
talent  and  courage ;  but  having  behaved  with  ingratitude  to 
the  able  and  virtuous  Hajee  Ibrahim,  governor  of  Sheeraz,  to 
whom  he  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his  throne,  the  latter,  seeing 
that  he  had  no  security  for  his  life  but  in  depriving  the  king 
of  the  power  to  injure  him,  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with 
Aga  Mohammed  Khan,  chief  of  the  Kajirs,  a  Turkish  tribe, 
settled  in  Mazenderan  by  Abbas  the  Great,  who  was  now 
grovm  so  powerful  as  openly  to  aspire  to  the  empire.  Lootf 
Ali  Khan,  after  struggling   for  his  crown  with  a  heroism 

1795.  rarely  paralleled,  fell  at  length  into  the  hands  of  his  cruel 
rival,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death,  with  every  refinement 
of  barbarity.  This  unhappy  prince  was  but  twenty-five  years 
old.     Aga  Mohammed  was  uncle  to  the  present  king  of  Per- 

179*"  eia ;  and  by  his  vigor  and  cruelty,  he  left  the  kingdom  to  his 
successor  in  the  state  of  obedience  it  has  ever  since  main 
tained. 


CHAP.  VIIL 

TIMES  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION   AIO)   ElfPIEE. 

State  of  Europe. 

LiTERATXTRE  ROW  exerted  a  much  more  powerful  influence 
over  the  public  mind  than  it  had  done  at  any  preceding  period. 
A  eet  of  men,  many  of  them  of  talents  of  the  first  order,  ar 


CHAP  VIII.        FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  509 

rogating  to  themselves  the  exclusive  title  of  philosophers,  and 
actuated  at  first,  perhaps,  by  a  zeal  for  truth,  carried  on  an 
incessant  warfare  against  all  that  they  were  pleased  to  de- 
signate as  superstition  and  vulgar  prejudice.  But  theirs  was 
not  that  philosophy  which,  elevated  above  all  low  and  grovel- 
ing passions,  and  irradiated  by  light  from  heaven,  views  with 
pity  rather  than  contempt  the  aberrations  of  man,  and  seeks 
by  mild  and  gentle  methods  to  lead  him  into  the  way  of  truth. 
It  was  heartless,  cold,  and  cheerless;  its  summum  bonum 
was  sensual  indulgence  or  literary  fame,  and  few  of  its  pro- 
fessors displayed  any  real  dignity  of  soul :  its  favorite  weapon 
was  ridicule;  it  attacked  not  alone  the  absurdities  of  the 
popular  faith,  but  it  levelled  its  shafts  at  the  sublimest  truths 
of  religion ;  it  shook  the  firmest  bases  of  social  order,  and 
sought  to  rob  man  of  all  lofty  hopes  and  aspirations.  Every 
mode  of  composition,  from  the  highest  science  and  most  seri- 
ous history  down  to  the  lightest  tale,  was  made  the  vehicle 
of  this  philosophy,  with  which  was  oft;en  joined  a  sickly, 
affected  sensibility,  calculated  to  gain  it  admittance  even  into 
the  female  bosom.  The  consequence  was,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, a  general  laxity  of  principle. 

■  The  chief  seat  of  this  philosophy  was  France,  where  a 
court,  corrtipt  and  profligate  beyond,  perhaps,  any  which 
Europe  had  yet  witnessed,  had  utterly  degraded  the  minds  of 
the  upper  classes  of  society.  The  efforts  of  the  virtuous 
Louis  XVI.  to  stem  this  torrent  were  unavailing :  national 
vice  was  not  to  escape  its  merited  chastisement.  Tlie  middle 
orders  were  disgusted  and  galled  by  the  privileges  of  the 
noblesse,  and  their  excessive  pride  and  insolence ;  the  writings 
of  the  philosophers,  and  the  scandalous  lives  of  many  of  the 
clergy,  had  shaken  their  reverence  for  religion ;  the  abuses 
and  oppression  of  arbitrary  and  extravagant  government  were 
keenly  felt ;  the  glorious  struggle  of  the  English  for  liberty 
in  the  last  century,  and  the  dignity  and  prosperity  consequent 
on  it,  awaked  the  aspirations  of  the  better  disposed;  the 
achievement  of  American  independence  filled  the  minds  of 
many  enthusiasts  with  vague  ideas  of  freedom  and  happi- 
ness beneath  republican  institutions ;  and  the  lower  orders  in 
general  looked  forward  to  any  change  as  a  benefit 

It  was  a  time  of  innovation,  turmoil,  and  violent  change. 
The  English  colonies  had  thrown  off' the  bridle  of  the  mother 
country,  whom  she  curbed  too  straitly.  The  kingdom  of 
Poland  had  been  most  nefariously  dismembered.  Gustavus 
III.  of  Sweden  had  overtlirown  the  aristocracy,  and  made 
himself  absolute.  A  contest  arose  in  the  United  Provinces,  a  b 
between  tiie  party  of  tlie  sladtholder  and  those  who  wisljed  HTi 

43* 


610  HISTORT  OF  THE  WOELD.  PART  \T\. 

to  make  the  government  of  a  more  republican  form,  which 

drew  the  attention  of  all  the  principal  powers:  the  respective 

^  o.  parties  appealed  to  arms,  and  by  Prussian  aid  the  republican. 

1787.  were  crushed.  All  these  were  but  preludes  to  the  storu; 
which  was  soon  to  burst  over  Europe. 

1787  The  east  of  Europe  was  meantime  precipitated  into  war. 
The  Turkish  sultan,  appi-ehensive  of  the  designs  of  the 
tsarina  and  the  emperor  Joseph,  declared  war  against  Russia. 
The  Turks  commenced  by  the  bombardment  of  Kilburn,  on 
the  Dneiper ;  but,  while  forming  the  trenches,  they  were  at- 
tacked by  Suvaroff,  and  nearly  their  whole  force  destroyed. 
Joseph  now  took  part  in  the  war,  and  opened  it  by  a  treach- 
erous attempt  on  Belgrade :  he  entered  the  Turkish  domin- 
ions at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force;  but  he  reaped  little 

1788.  military  fame,  and  could  only  boast  of  the  reduction  of 
Choczim. 

The  king  of  Sweden  now  entered  into  the  war  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  the  Porte,  and  severe 
naval  conflicts  took  place  in  the  Baltic ;  but  several  of  Gus- 
tavus's  officers  refused  obedience  to  him,  and  the  Danes  pre- 
pared to  attack  him  on  the  side  of  Norway.  A  Russian  flo- 
tilla, under  the  prince  of  Nassau  Siegen,  defeated  Hassan, 
the  capudan-pasha,  off"  Oczakoff!  In  three  other  conflicts  he 
was  equally  unfortunate.  The  siege  of  Oczakoff"  was  formed 
by  prince  Potemkin :  the  town  was  taken  by  assault,  and  the 
inhabitants  butchered  and  pillaged  by  the  soldiery. 

1789  Abd-ul-hamed,  dying  suddenly,  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
Selim  III. ;  but  success  did  not  revisit  the  Ottoman  arms. 
On  the  plains  of  Rimnik  they  failed  before  the  Austrians  and 
Russians,  and  Belgrade  surrendered  to  the  Austrian  general 
Laudohn.  But  disease  and  chagrin  at  the  resistance  offered 
to  his  innovations  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  discontents  in 

'790.  Hungary,  terminated  the  existence  of  Joseph;  and  his 
brother  Leopold,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  who  succeeded 
him,  after  some  unsuccessful  efforts,  concluded  an  armistice 
with  Selim. 

On  the  part  of  the  Russians,  Ismael,  a  strong  town  in  Bes- 
sarabia, was  taken  by  assault  by  Suvaroff",  during  the  very 
middle  of  winter.  The  ferocious  warriors  massacred  in  this 
assault  fifty  thousand  Turks ;  their  own  loss  was,  according 
to  their  veracious  commander,  four  thousand  three  hundred , 
according  to  others,  fifteen  thousand.  In  the  Baltic,  the  Rus* 
sian  fleet  was  completely  defeated  by  that  of  the  Swedes 
commanded  by  Gustavus  in  person ;  and  preliminaries  for  a 
peace  were  soon  afterwards  agreed  on.  The  war  was  carried 
on  with  vigor  in  Turkey :  the  Moslems  were  defeated  at 


CHAP.  VIII        FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  511 

Maczin,  and  Bahada,  and  the  tsarina  at  length  agreed  that  a  4.  d 
congress  should  be  lieW  at  Yassy  to  arrange  the  terms  of  a  1791 
peace,  which  was  concluded  in  tiie  following  year. 

An  attempt  made  by  the  patriotic  portion  of  the  Polish 
nation  to  regain  their  independence  was  crushed  by  the  arniB 
of  the  Russian  despot,  and  the  nation  fell  back  into  its  former 
tate  of  degradation. 

Frederic  II.  of  Prussia  had  died  in  1786.  Catherine  sur- 
vived him  ten  years,  and  lived  to  witness  the  horrors  of  the 
French  revolution. 

The  French  Revolution. 

The  disordered  state  of  the  French  finances  induced  the  .  787 
court,  displeased  with  the  parliament  of  Paris,  to  assemble 
the  Notables ;  that  is,  persons  selected  from  the  privileged 
orders.  This  measure  produced  no  advantage,  and  all  classes 
called  for  a  meeting  of  the  states-general.  This  national 
council  was  at  length  convoked,  and  met  at  Versailles ;  but  1789 
the  commons  were  thought  to  assume  so  much  power,  and  to 
encroach  so  on  the  other  orders,  that  the  king  dismissed 
Necker,  his  minister  of  finance,  and  ordered  some  regiments 
to  advance  towards  the  capital.  The  populace,  excited  by 
the  democrats,  committed  several  outrages,  and  they  took 
and  demolished  the  fortress  named  the  Bastile.  The  privi- 
leges of  the  nobility  and  clergy  were  soon  abolished.  The 
king  was  obliged  to  recall  Necker,  and  to  transfer  the  assem- 
bly to  Paris,  where  the  mob  was  at  the  devotion  of  the  demo- 
crats. The  property  of  the  church  was  now  transferred  to 
the  nation;  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  departments; 
change  followed  change  without  intermission ;  the  king,  for 
peace  sake,  assented  to  every  thing;  but  commotion  and 
bloodshed  prevailed  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

The  power  of  the  democrats  still  increased,  and  the  famous  1790. 
Jacobin  club  was  formed  by  them.  Several  of  the  nobility 
and  of  the  royal  family  quitted  France.  A  project  being 
formed  for  the  emperor  and  other  powers  to  assist  the  king 
in  the  recovery  of  his  authority,  of  which  he  was  now  nearly  179L 
deprived,  he  and  the  royal  family  endeavored  to  escape  out 
of  France ;  but  they  were  stopped  at  Varennes,  and  forced 
to  return  to  Paris.  The  Jacobin  and  Cordelier  factions  loudly 
demanded  his  death,  and  a  violent  riot  took  place  in  the 
Champ  de  Mars.  A  constitutional  code  was  at  this  time 
completed. 

Brissot,  the  leader  of  the  Jacobins,  procured  a  declarajon  179* 
of  war  against  Austria,  and  La  Fayette  invaded  the  Nether- 
lands, but  he  was  unsuccessful.     A  Prussian  army,  undei 


A    D. 


512  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  m 

the  duke  of  Brunswick,  approached  the  French  frontier;  bu 
the  violent  and  silly  manifesto  he  put  forth  served  only  to  in 
jure  the  cause  it  advocated.  The  Jacobins,  urged  on  by  their 
atrocious  leaders,  excited  the  populace ;  the  king  and  roya. 
family  were  put  into  confinement  Numbers  of  the  nobility 
and  others  were  murdered  to  prevent  their  joining  the  Prus- 
sians. Royalty  was  abolished.  The  Jacobins  split  into  the 
Girondists,  headed  by  Brissot  and  Roland,  and  the  Jacobins, 
led  by  Robespierre,  Danton,  and  Marat,  three  daring  men 
whose  bosoms  knew  not.  remorse.  Disease  and  want  of  sup- 
plies forcing  the  Prussians  and  Austrians,  who  had  nearly 
reached  Paris,  to  retire,  Dumouriez  invaded  the  Netherlands, 
and,  as  the  people  were  in  his  favor,  speedily  reduced  them. 
Savoy  was  conquered,  Germany  invaded.  The  measure  of 
Jacobin  guilt  was  now  nearly  filled  up :  they  brought  their 
1793  amiable  and  unhappy  king  to  trial,  and  judicially  murdered 
him.  This  iniquitous  act  was  followed  by  a  declaration  of 
war  against  the  kings  of  England  and  Spain  and  the  stadt- 
holder  of  Holland. 

Dumouriez  invaded  Holland,  and  reduced  several  towns ; 
but  he  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  Neer-Winden.  The 
French  arms  were  unfortunate  also  in  Germany.  Dumouriez 
formed  a  plan  for  restoring  a  king  and  constitutional  govern- 
ment to  France ;  but  it  being  detected,  he  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  with  the  Austrians.  An  English  army,  under  the 
duke  of  York,  was  now  in  Holland.  Dampierre,  Dumou- 
riez's  saccessor,  was  defeated  and  slain.  The  French  lost 
almost  all  their  conquests;  their  raw  levies  were  cut  to 
pieces ;  yet,  under  Hoche,  they  were  again  successful.  The 
English  failed  in  an  attack  on  Dunkirk :  the  Austrians  were 
driven  within  their  own  boundaries. 

The  French  and  Spaniards  fought  with  various  success  at 
the  Pyrenees.  A  savage  civil  war  now  broke  out  in  the 
island  of  St.  Domingo.  At  home,  the  Brissotine  party  was 
overthrown,  and  all  the  heads  of  it  executed :  the  infamous 
duke  of  Orleans  also  suffered  the  fate  he  had  so  long  merited. 
The  monsters  now  too  shed  the  blood  of  the  unhappy  queen. 
A  revolt  having  broken  out  in  the  south  of  France,  it  was 
quenched  in  blood  ;  and  the  city  of  Lyons  had  a  bitter  expe- 
rience of  republican  humanity.  A  war  was  carried  on  in 
La  Vendee  by  the  friends  of  royalty  and  religion ;  but  for- 
tune favored  the  enemies  of  both.  The  English,  aided  by 
Spain  and  Naples,  had  taken  possession  of  Toulon ;  they  were 
forced,  however,  to  abandon  it 
J9A.  The  war  in  the  Netherlands  was  carried  on  with  great 
vigor :  the  French  troops  were  commanded  by  Pichegru  and 


Marshal  JuDot 


LooiU  XYI.  and  Marie  Antoinette 


CHAP.  Vni.     FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  515 

Jourdan.  After  a  variety  of  fortune,  and  the  battle  Df  Fleurus, 
gained  by  the  latter,  the  tide  ran  in  favor  of  the  French,  and 
the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  were  subdued.  In  Germany, 
Jourdan  defeated  Clairfait,  cind  reduced  Juliers  and  Cologne. 

In  France,  the  guillotine  was  pouring  out  blood  in  all  quar- 
ters at  the  command  of  Robespierre  and  his  ruthless  asso- 
ciates ;  but  at  last  Justice  awoke  a  little  from  her  slumber, 
and  the  tyrant  himself  met  the  fate  he  more  than  deserved. 
Danton  had  already  experienced  it,  and  Marat  had  fallen  by 
the  hand  of  Charlotte  Corde. 

Howe  on  tlie  1st  of  June  defeated  the  French  fleet  The 
Corsicans  placed  themselves  under  the  king  of  England.  But 
the  French  were  victorious  at  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  Holland 
they  met  with  uniform  success.  The  middle  ranks  of  the 
Dutch  were  in  their  favor ;  a  revolution  took  place,  and  the  x.  n 
people  of  the  United  Provinces,  under  the  name  of  allies,  be-  179a 
came  the  subjects  of  France. 

Europe,  to  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio. 

While  exclaiming  against  the  horrors  of  the  French  revo-  1792' 
lution,  the  royal  spoilers  fell  again  on  unhappy  Poland,  and 
tore  away  some  more  of  her  limbs.  The  Poles,  led  by  the 
brave  Kosciuszko,  took  arms,  and  made  a  brave  resistance ; 
but  the  defeat  at  Matchewitz  broke  their  hopes,  which  finally 
expired  when  Warsaw  was  taken,  and  its  garrison  massacred 
by  the  ferocious  SuvarofF.  A  new  division  of  plunder  now  1791 
took  place.  How  rarely  are  uncontrolled  power  and  a  due 
sense  of  justice  to  be  found  in  union  ! 

Glutted  with  spoil,  and  now  desirous  of  repose,  the  king  of 
Prussia  made  a  peace  with  France.  In  that  country  there 
had  been  a  reaction,  and  the  Jacobins  were  murdered  and 
guillotined  in  their  turn.  The  king  of  Spain  was  forced  to 
seek  for  peace.  In  Germany  there  was  some  severe  fighting 
between  Jourdan  and  Clairfait.  The  Vendeans  rose  again, 
but  were* speedily  crushed.  Lord  Bridport  and  admiral  Corn- 
wallis  were  successful  against  the  French  fleets.  Most  of 
the  foreign  possessions  of  the  French  and  Dutch  were  re- 
duced by  the  English.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Paris, 
but  it  was  easily  quelled.  The  constitution  was  now  re- 
modelled. 

Numerous  conflicts  took    place  in    Germany;    but    the  1796 
French,  under  Jourdan  and  Moreau,  were  unable  to  withstand 
the  Austrians,  commanded  by  the  archduke  Charles.     The 
etreal  of  Moreau  to  the  Rhine,  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  mas- 
terly in  history. 

Brilliant  success  attended  the  arras  of  the  republic  in  Italy^ 


516  mSTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  111. 

under  the  young  Bonaparte.  The  victories  of  Monte  Notte 
and  Monte  Lezino  compelled  the  king  of  Sardinia  to  sue  for 
peace,  with  loss  of  territory.  The  forcing,  with  excessive 
loss,  of  tlie  bridge  of  Lodi,  opened  Lombardy  to  the  French. 
The  pope,  the  princes  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  Parma,  were 
obliged  to  purchase  safety  by  money,  books,  pictures,  and 
statues.  Mantua  was  besieged :  the  Austrians,  who  had  been 
reinforced,  approaching  to  its  relief,  were  defeated  at  Lonato 
and  Castiglione,  and  Mantua  was  reinvested.  The  Trans 
and  Cis-Padane  republics  were  at  this  time  erected.  The 
English  were  deprived  of  Corsica.  Spain  was  now  at  length 
induced  to  join  in  the  war  against  England,  and  a  mutiny 
which  broke  out  in  the  navy  of  the  latter  power  seemed  to 
threaten  her  existence. 
4.  D  Every  attempt  was  made  to  relieve  Mantua,  and  several 
T^-  actions  were  fought.  At  Rivoli  the  Austrians,  under  Alvinzi, 
struggled  in  vain  with  the  utmost  heroism,  and  Mantua  was 
at  length  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  territories  of  the  pope 
were  next  overrun,  and  he  was  forced  to  surrender  the 
greater  part  of  them,  and  pay  large  sums  of  money.  Bona- 
parte then  led  his  army  northwards,  resolved  to  invade  the 
hereditary  dominions  of  the  emperor.  He  overran  Carinthia 
and  part  of  Styria,  Camiola,  and  Istria ;  but  by  the  desire  of 
the  directory,  who  now  governed  France,  he  made  proposals 
of  peace,  and  articles  were  signed  at  Leoben. 

Venice  now  was  to  be  favored  with  a  new  constitution  by 
the  French  empirics.  The  vile  oligarchy  who  ruled  it  were 
paralyzed  with  terror :  while  they  negotiated,  French  troops 
eeized  all  their  towns,  and  Venice,  after  an  independent  ex- 
istence of  more  than  1000  years,  submitted,  without  striking 
a  blow,  to  be  blotted  out  of  the  list  of  nations ;  and  who  wiG 
deplore  the  fate  of  an  oligarchy  of  whom  history  records 
hardly  a  single  noble  or  generous  action  ]  Genoa,  a  name 
dearer  to  liberty,  underwent  a  similar  fate,  and  becaane  the 
Ligurian  republic. 

Peace  was  at  length  concluded  at  Campo  Formio.  'Austria 
got  Venice  and  the  greater  part  of  her  territory;  but  she  lost 
the  Netherlands  and  her  Italian  dominions.  The  Ionian  isl- 
ands fell  to  France. 

Affairs  to  the  assumption  of  the  chief  po'oer  by  Bonaparte. 

T98       Rome  was  pUlaged,  and  a  republic  erected  there.     Th 
machinations  of  the  French  produced  a  revolution  in  Switzer- 
land, and  that  republic  was  united  to  Fraice.     Some  of  the 
cantons  refused  submission :  they  fought  with  the  valor  of 
patriots,  but  tliey  were  constrained  to  yield  to  superior  power 


CHAP  VIII.     FKENCn  REVOLUTIOP:  ANU  EMPIRE.  517 

Malta  was  now  treacherously  assailed  and  taken  by  Bona- 
parte, on  his  way  to  Egrypt,  whither,  with  their  usual  regard 
to  good  faith  and  justice,  the  directory  had  sent  him.  He 
landed  near  Alexandria,  stormed  that  town,  and  massacred 
the  inhabitants.  The  Mamelukes  were  routed  at  Embaba, 
and  Cairo  submitted.  Meanwhile  the  English  admiral  Nel- 
son destroyed  (Aug.  1)  the  PVench  fleet  at  Aboukir. 

A  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland ;  but  after  a  short  strug- 
gle, the  insurgents,  not  being  aided  by  France,  were  forced 
to  submit.  The  tsar  now  took  share  in  the  war,  and  the  em- 
peror of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Naples  also  prepared  to  en- 
gage in  it 

The  Neapolitan  troops  invaded  the  Roman  territory,  but  a.  d 
were  driven  back.     The  French  advanced ;  the  king  fled  to  I'^^S 
Palermo ;  Capua  surrendered.     The  peasantry  and  populace 
of  Naples  fought,  but  in  vain,  in  defence  of  their  country. 
Naples  was  entered. 

The  French  were  anxious  to  obtain  possession  of  the  Grison 
country.  At  Ostrach  and  Stockach,  Jourdan  was  defeated 
by  the  archduke  Charles.  A  Russian  army  under  SuvaroflT 
entered  Italy,  and  in  union  with  the  Austrians  defeated  the 
French  at  Cassano,  and  drove  them  to  Milan  and  Genoa.  Al- 
exandria was  taken,  and  the  French,  under  Joubert  and  Mo- 
reau,  were  routed  at  Novi.  Suvaroff  marched  into  Switzer- 
land, where  there  had  been  some  severe  fighting.  Korsakoff' 
had  led  another  Russian  army  into  that  country.  Massena, 
the  French  commander,  attacked  and  defeated  this  last  offi- 
cer, and  Zurich  was  taken  by  storm.  The  Austrians  in  Italy 
reduced  Coni,  and  invested  Genoa. 

Bonaparte  having  reduced  Egypt,  turned  his  thoughts  to 
Syria.  General  Regnier,  with  12,000  men,  was  sent  towards 
that  country,  ruled  over  by  the  sanguinary  Jezzar,  who  was 
aided  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  and  some  troops  of  the  Porte.  At 
Al-Arish,  Regnier  defeated  a  body  of  Mamelukes.  Bonaparte 
soon  joined  the  army ;  Al-Arish  and  Gaza  surrendered :  Jaflu 
was  taken  by  storm.  Acre  was,  as  of  old,  gallantly  defended 
by  a  Christian  hero,  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  and  Bonaparte  was 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  and  return  to  Egypt  Desaix  had 
been  there  engaged  against  the  Mamelukes  in  Upper  Egypt, 
and  had  driven  them  beyond  the  Cataracts. 

A  Turkish  army  under  the  vizier  having  landed  in  Egjrpt, 
uid  taken  Aboukir,  Bonaparte  attacked  and  defeated  them, 
and  recovered  tlie  fijrt.  Soon  afterwards,  seeing  that  nothing 
more  was  to  be  gained  in  Egypt  he  secretly  returned  to 
France,  leaving  the  command  to  Kleber,  who  defeated  a 
Turkish  division ;  but  his  troops  being  in  want  of  every  thmg, 
44 


618  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  IH. 

he  signed  a  convention  with  the  vizier  to  quit  the  country. 
Lord  Keith  declared  it  should  not  be  executed,  and  Kleber 
again  attacked  and  defeated  the  Turks. 

The  English,  Austrians,  and  Neapolitans   recovered  the 
papal  territories.     The  English  and  Russians  landed  in  Hoi 
land ;  but  after  obtaining  some  advantages  over  general  Van 
damme,  they  were  obliged  to  negotiate  a  retreat. 

The  joy  of  the  directory  at  this  success  was  damped  by  the 
nppearance  of  Bonaparte.  A  revolution  in  the  government 
was  effected;  it  was  made  consular,  and  Bonaparte  was 
chosen  first  consul,  with  Cambaceres  and  Le  Brun  for  hia 
colleagues. 

Affairs  till  the  peace  of  Amiens. 

18()0  Bonaparte,  anxious  to  consolidate  his  power,  made  pacific 
overtures  to  England,  which  were  rejected :  the  minister  and 
the  nation  were  bent  on  war.  The  long-sought  union  with 
Ireland  was  proposed  this  year,  and  in  the  following  year  car- 
ried into  effect. 

The  first  consul  resolved  to" prosecute  the  war  with  vigor. 
He  joined  the  army  assembled  at  Geneva,  crossed  Mont  SL 
Bernard,  and  descended  into  Italy.  The  country  to  the  Po 
was  speedily  subdued,  and  that  river  passed.  Genoa  had  sur- 
rendered to  the  Austrians.  The  Austrian  general  Melas  was 
defeated  at  Montebello.  On  the  plains  of  Marengo,  between 
Alessandria  and  Tortona,  the  armies  fought  (June  14)  again : 
victory  seemed  ready  to  declare  for  the  Austrians,  when  the 
arrival  of  the  divisions  of  Monnier  and  Desaix  turned  the  for- 
tune of  the  day,  and  gave  the  first  consul  the  glory  of  a  con- 
queror. A  truce,  and  the  surrender  of  Genoa  and  other 
strong  places,  were  the  immediate  result. 

In  Germany,  Moreau  penetrated  into  Bavaria :  a  negotia- 
tion was  ineffectually  entered  into;  the  war  recommenced,  and 
the  defeat  of  Hohenlinden  (Dec.  3)  led  to  the  treaty  of  Lu- 
neville,  by  which  Francis  gave  up  more  territory  in  Germany, 
and  consented  to  the  transfer  of  Tuscany  to  the  duke  of 
Parma. 
801  The  fickle  tsar  Paul  had  been  gained  over  by  the  French. 
He  detained  the  ships  of  the  English,  and  prevailed  on  Den- 
mark and  Sweden  to  engage  in  an  armed  neutrality.  The 
English,  who  considered  their  existence  to  depend  on  their 
maritime  superiority,  sent  a  large  fleet  to  the  Baltic,  under 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  to  break  up  the  confederacy.  The  Danes 
were  first  attacked ;  lord  Nelson  destroyed  their  line  of  de- 
fence before  Copenhagen,  and  they  sued  for  peace :  the  king 
of  Sweden  agreed  to  treat.     The  tsar  Paul  was  murdered  by 


^.        .,..vv  aS'5\\V-. 


o 


o 

o 

B 
n 


i 


o 


o 


oa 
i 

i 


DmOi  of  Kelson,  at  the  Battle  of  Xra&Igar 


CHAP.  VIII.       FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  521 

conspirators,  and  his  son  Alexander  was  inclined  to  England. 
The  kinsf  of  Prussia,  who  had  seized  on  Hanover,  now  de- 
clared himself  ready  to  renew  his  amity  with  Great  Britain. 

An  English  army,  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  had  ar- 
rived in  Eg-ypt.  Immediately  on  its  landing  a  battle  ensued, 
which  the  English  gained  with  the  loss  of  their  general. 
Grand  Cairo  surrendered.  Its  example  was  followed  by 
Alexandria,  and  the  French  agreed  to  evacuate  the  country. 

Peace  was  signed  at  Amiens.     The  English  consented  to  a  d 
give  up  all  their  conquests  but  Ceylon  and  Trinidad ;  the  1802 
Ionian  islands  were  to  form  a  republic ;  Malta  to  be  restored 
to  the  knights. 

Affairs  of  Europe  to  the  treaty  of  Tilsit. 

Bonaparte  was  now  declared  chief  consul  for  life.  He  re- 
stored the  Catholic  religion,  and  gave  new  constitutions  to 
France,  Genoa,  and  Switzerland.  A  force  was  sent  to  St. 
Domingo,  where  Toussaint  I'Ouverture,  a  negro,  had  erected 
a  republic.  That  chief  was  treacherously  seized  and  sent 
to  France ,  out  the  French  were  unable  fully  to  recover  the 
island. 

Disputes  arising  respecting  the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of  180a 
Amiens,  tne  war  was  resumed.     Hanover  was  invaded  and 
reduced  by  the  French;  Holland  was  dragged  into  the  war, 
and   immediately  lost  her   colonies.     In    St.  Domingo  the 
French  power  was  finally  overthrown,  and  Dessalines  made  1804 
chief  of  the  republic. 

Bonaparte  at  length  ventured  to  assume  the  imperial  dig- 
nity, and  the  princes  of  Europe  mostly  acknowledged  their 
new  associate,  who  insulted  and  domineered  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  continent. 

The  following  year,  after  bestowing  a  new  constitution  on  i805 
Holland,  Napoleon  made  himself  king  of  Italy,  adding  the 
Ligurian  republic  to  his  kingdom.  This  last  act  of  injustice 
induced  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  to  enter  into  a 
confederacy  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  glorious  victory 
gained  by  Nelson  off  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21)  over  the  combined 
fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  gave  spirits  to  the  allies;  but  the 
French  poured  over  the  Rhine,  and  drove  back  the  Austrians. 
At  Ulm  20,000  Austrians  surrendered.  Vienna  was  entered 
by  Napoleon:  the  Austrians  and  Russians  were  completely 
defeated  at  Austerlitz  (Dec.  2).  Francis  lost  courage,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  at  Presburg,  by  which  he  gave  up  more 
territory,  including  Venice,  acknowledged  the  king  of  Italy 
and  two  new  kings,  namely,  those  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtencv- 
burg 

^      44* 


522  msTORT  OF  the  world.  part  ni 

The  French  invaded  Naples,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  was 
seated  on  the  throne  of  that  country.  A  victory  vi'as  gained 
at  Maida  (July  4)  by  the  English,  and  the  Calabrians  rose ; 
but  the  power  of  the  usurper  was  too  great  for  resistance. 
Holland  was  also  made  a  kingdom  for  Louis  Bonaparte.  At 
the  command  of  Napoleon,  his  two  new  German  kings,  and 
some  other  princes,  detached  themselves  from  the  Germani 
body,  and  formed  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine,  in  alliance 
with  France.  The  king  of  Prussia,  who  had  been  encouraged 
to  seize  Hanover,  finding  that  in  some  late  negotiations  be- 
tween France  and  England  its  restoration  had  been  offered, 
and  otherwise  disgusted  with  his  friend  the  emperor,  rushed 
precipitately  into  a  war:  he  imprudently  gave  the  chief 
command  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  The  French  advanced 
with  rapidity.  A  Prussian  army  of  6000  men  was  defeated 
at  Saalfeld.  Near  Jena  and  Auerstadt  (Oct.  14)  the  Prussian 
and  Saxon  army  of  110,000  men  was  attacked  by  that  of  the 
French  of  150,000,  and  defeated.  Erfurt  was  taken ;  prince 
Hohenlohe  and  his  army  surrendered  at  Prentzlau :  Berlin 
was  entered.  The  king  of  Holland  conquered  to  the  Weser : 
Jerome  Bonaparte  subdued  Silesia:  general  Bliicher  and 
9400  men  capitulated  at  Ratkau :  the  Poles  were  excited  tc 
rise.  The  Russians,  who  were  now  advancing,  met  and  de- 
feated the  French  at  Pultusk,  and  repulsed  them  at  Golomyn. 
At  Berlin,  Bonaoarte  declared  the  British  isles  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  and,  oy  what  he  called  the  continental  system,  pro- 
hibited all  intercourse  with  them. 
A.  D.  The  Turks  now  shared  in  the  war.  The  Russian  emperor 
^"^  foolishly  quarrelled  with  the  Porte,  and  overran  its  northern 
provinces.  An  English  fleet  fruitlessly  menaced  Constanti- 
nople, and  an  ineffectual  attempt  was  made  on  Egypt. 

The  war  was  renewed  in  the  north,  and  a  desperate  but 
indecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Prussian  Eylau ;  Dantzig  was 
taken  by  Lefevre.  The  allies  sustained  a  defeat  at  Friedland 
(June  14),  which  was  followed  by  the  capture  of  Konigsbur^, 
and  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  which  deprived  the  king  of  Prussia 
of  one-third  of  his  dominions,  and  erected  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia  for  Jerome  Bonaparte. 

Affairs  to  the  treaty  of  Vienna. 

An  expedition,  little  creditable  to  England,  was  sfmt  out 
against  Denmark,  a  power  with  whom  she  was  at  peace, 
Copenhagen  was  bombarded,  and  all  the  ships  and  naval 
stores  carried  away.  A  rupture  ensued  between  Russia  and 
England. 
1808.      The  demands  made  by  France  on  the  regent  of  Portugal 


CHAP.  VIII  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  523 

were  so  unjust,  that  that  prince,  at  the  desire  of  the  British 
cabinet,  departed  for  the  Brazils.  Portugal  was  occupied  by 
the  French.  Intrigues  were  set  on  foot  in  Spain ;  the  king, 
Charles  IV.,  resigned  in  favor  of  his  son  Ferdinand.  The  a.  d 
royal  family  were  decoyed  to  Bayonne ;  both  father  and  son  l^Ot 
were  terrified  into  abdication,  and  the  crown  transferred  to 
Joseph  Bonaparte.  Large  bodies  of  troops  had  already  been 
sent  into  Spain,  and  no  opposition  was  dreaded ;  but  the  peo- 
ple rose  in  all  quarters,  and  proclaimed  Ferdinand  VII. :  the 
French  fleet  at  Cadiz  was  obliged  to  surrender,  as  also  the 
army  of  Dupont  at  Baylen.  Saragossa  was  heroically  de- 
fended against  the  troops  of  Joseph,  who  at  length  raised  the 
siege. 

The  Portuguese  rose  also  against  the  French.  A  British 
army  landed  and  defeated  the  French  general  Junot  at  Vi- 
meiro  (Aug.  21).  By  a  convention  made  at  Cintra,  the 
French  evacuated  that  kingdom.  A  Russian  fleet  was  taken 
in  the  Tagus. 

In  the  north  of  Europe,  Sweden  was  hard  pressed  by  the 
Russians  and  Danes.  The  conduct  of  Gustavus  bordering 
on  insanity,  he  was  the  next  year  dethroned,  and  his  uncle 
made  king  m  his  place. 

The  French  were  victorious  in  Spain,  defeating  Blake  at 
Reynosa,  and  Castanos  at  Tudela.  Napoleon  arrived,  and 
Madrid  was  taken.  An  English  army,  under  Sir  John  Moore, 
had  advanced  as  far  as  Salamanca ;  but  it  was  forced  to  re- 
treat At  Corunna  it  was  attacked  (Jan.  16),  and  general  *S09 
Moore  mortally  wounded. 

Encouraged  by  the  resistance  made  by  the  Spaniards,  the 
emperor  of  Austria  resolved  anew  on  war :  it  commenced  in 
Bavaria.  Napoleon  having  driven  back  the  Austrians  at 
Eckmuhl,  advanced  rapidly  and  occupied  Vienna.  At  Aspem 
and  Essling,  after  dreadful  slaughter  on  both  sides,  the  victory 
remained  with  the  Austrians.  The  battle  of  Wagram  ter- 
minated in  favor  of  the  French. 

A  most  ill-conceived  project  of  creating  a  diversion  in  Hol- 
and  was  formed  by  the  British  cabinet.  An  army  of  39,000 
men,  under  the  earl  of  Cathcart,  sailed  to  Walcheren,  and 
took  Middleburg  and  Flushing ;  but  a  large  force  being  col- 
lected at  Antwerp,  and  a  fever  breaking  out  among  the  troops, 
nothing  further  could  be  effected  by  such  a  waste  of  lives 
and  treasure. 

The  emperor  Francis  was  now  constrained  to  make  peace, 
with  additional  loss  of  territory.  In  the  preceding  year, 
Selim  III.  had  been  murdered,  and  Mahmood,  tlie  present 


524  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  ni 

sultan,  was  seated  on  the  Turkish  throne.    Peace  was  con- 
cluded between  England  and  the  Porte, 

Progress  of  the  Peninsular  War. 

The  French  were  now  masters  of  Spain  to  Old  Castile. 
Saragossa  had  stood  a  second  siege  with  less  success  than 
formerly,  20,000  of  its  defenders  being  said  to  have  perished. 
Marshal  Soult  entered  Portugal,  and  took  Oporto.  Sir  A. 
Wellesley  advanced  against  him,  and  drove  him  back  into 
Spain.  The  Spaniards  defeated  marshal  Ney  at  San  Payo  in 
Gallicia.  Sir  A.  Wellesley  entered  Spain  and  defeated  the 
French  at  Talavera  de  la  Reyna  (July  28) ;  but  the  enemv 
being  reinforced,  and  the  co-operation  of  the  Spaniards  not 
to  be  depended  on,  he  fell  back.  Gerona  was  taken  by  tht 
French,  after  a  gallailt  defence.  One  Spanish  army  was  de- 
feated at  Ocana,  and  another  at  Alba  de  Tormes. 
A.  D  An  army  of  30,000  Portuguese  was  raised  and  paid  by  the 
l^-O'  British  government.  The  French  army  approached  Portugal, 
took  Astorga  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and,  under  Massena,  passed 
the  frontier  and  reduced  Almeida.  At  the  pass  of  Busaco 
they  were  repelled.  A  fortified  line  was  made  from  the  Ta- 
gus  to  the  ocean,  behind  which  ^he  allies  were  posted.  Mas- 
sena feared  to  assail  it :  after  a  month's  inaction  he  fell  back 
to  Santarem. 

In  the  south  Seville  was  taken  by  the  French ;  but  Cadiz, 
now  the  seat  of  government,  was  secured  against  them. 
811.  Massena  at  length  commenced  his  retreat,  closely  followed 
by  the  allies.  A  sharp  action  occurred  at  Fuentes  d' Honor, 
after  which  Almeida  surrendered.  Badajoz  having  been 
captured  by  Mortier,  Sir  W.  Beresford  laid  siege  to  it.  Soult 
advancmg  with  23,000  men  to  its  relief,  the  combined  armies 
of  26,000  gave  him  battle  at  the  Albuera  (May  16),  and 
gained  the  honor  of  the  day.  The  siege  was  resumed  by 
Sir  A.  Wellesley,  now  lord  Wellington ;  but  on  the  approach 
of  Soult  and  Marmont  he  retired  across  the  Tagus.  In  An- 
dalusia the  French  were  defeated  at  Barrosa  by  general  Gra- 
ham. They  had  the  advantage  in  the  north  of  Spain,  and 
Tarragona,  Murviedro,  and  Valencia  fell  into  their  hands. 
The  revolution  commenced  this  year  in  South  America. 
B12.  A  change  having  taken  place  m  the  government  of  Spain, 
the  war  was  resumed  with  spirit.  Lord  Wellington  reduced 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz.  Salamanca  also  fell,  and  a  de- 
cisive victory  was  gamed  (July  22)  over  Marmont  in  its 
vicimty.  Madrid,  Seville,  Valladolid  were  recovered;  the 
l^rench  raised  the  siege  of  Cadiz;  but  lord  Wellington  failed 
in  an  attack  on  Burffos. 


»: 


The  Empress  Josephine. 


CHAP.  Vni.       FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE.  527 

The  Invasion  of  Russia,  and/all  of  Napoleon. 

Alexander  was  mortified  at  the  condition  to  which  he  was  a.  d 
reduced,  and  he  defied  Napoleon.  The  latter  formed  the  bold  181* 
project  of  invading  Russia:  an  immense  army  was  assembled; 
Lithuania  was  occupied;  Napoleon  advanced  to  Smolensk, 
(Judinot  and  Macdonald  were  directed  to  join,  and  to  get  be- 
tween the  great  Russian  army  and  St.  Petersburg.  The  for- 
mer was  defeated  by  Wittgenstein  at  Polotsk;  prince  Ba- 
gration  engaged  Davoust  at  Mohiloff";  Wittgenstein  com- 
pletely routed  Oudinot  a  second  time  at  Polotsk. 

Smolensk  was  abandoned  to  the  enemy.  At  Borodino 
(Sept.  7)  a  general  battle  was  fought,  and  the  French  re- 
pulsed with  a  loss  of  40,000  men ;  but  Napoleon  being  rein- 
forced, pushed  on  for  Moscow,  and  Kutusoff,  the  Russian 
commander,  not  feeling  himself  strong  enough  to  contend 
with  him,  he  reached  that  city,  but  found  it  in  flames.  Thus 
disappointed  of  supplies,  he  offered  in  vain  to  treat  He  then 
commenced  his  retreat.  It  was  mid-winter;  the  sufferings 
of  the  army  were  dreadful.  The  Russians  closely  pursued; 
and  of  the  immense  host  which  had  entered  Russia,  not  more 
than  30,000,  exclusive  of  the  Austrians,  passed  the  frontiers. 
The  dead  and  prisoners  exceeded  300,00()  in  number. 

Alexander  had  already  concluded  a  league  with  Sweden, 
whose  councils  were  directed  by  the  French  marshal  Berna- 
dotte,  who  had  been  chosen  cown-prince.  He  now  roused 
the  king  of  Prussia  to  resistance  A  treaty  was,  formed  be- 
tween them.  The  combined  armies  fought  the  new  levies 
of  Napoleon  at  Liitzen ;  the  action  was  indecisive,  and  they  1813 
were  repulsed  at  Bautzen.  A  truce  was  made ;  during  its 
continuance  the  emperor  of  Austria  joined  the  alliance,  as  did 
Sweden  now  openly. 

The  allied  army  of  180,000  men  was  commanded  by  the 
Austrian  prince  Schwarzenburg.  The  battle  of  Katzbach, 
gained  by  the  Prussian  general  Bliicher,  delivered  Silesia. 
An  indecisive  action  took  place  at  Dresden :  Vandamme  was 
defeated  at  Culm,  and  Ney  at  Juterbock.  Napoleon  concen- 
trated his  forces  at  Leipzig,  where  (October  18)  the  allies 
attacked  and  totally  defeated  him.  The  city  was  taken :  tiie 
king  of  Bavaria  joined  the  league ;  and  his  troops,  combmed 
with  the  Austrians,  defeated,  at  Hanau,  the  French  as  they 
wore  retrcatinff  from  Leipzig.  Holland  now  flung  off"  the 
yoke,  and  recalled  the  prince  of  Orange.  At  Frankfbrt  the 
allied  uionarchs  put  forth  a  declaration  of  the  justice  and 
moderation  of  their  views. 

In  Son  in,  lord  Wellington  being  reinforced,  and  now  well  1813 


528  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  HI 

supported  by  the  Spaniards,  crossed  the  Douro,  and  marched 
nuithwards.  At  Vittoria  (June  21)  he  engaged  and  totally 
defeated  the  French  army,  couimanded  by  marshal  Jourdan. 
Parnpeluna  was  blockaded;  St.  Sebastian  besieged  ;  marshal 
Soult  in  vain  endeavored  to  check  their  progress.  St.  Seoas- 
tian  fell,  and  the  allies  entered  France. 
*.  D  France  was  now  invaded  north  and  south.  The  armies 
i^li  from  Germany  met  little  check.  Murat,  the  king  of  Naples, 
abandoned  Napoleon.  The  allies  appeared  before  Paris,  and 
that  haughty  capital  capitulated.  In  the  south  the  allied  arms 
were  still  crowned  with  success ;  and  Bourdeaux  proclaimed 
Louis  XVIII. 

Napoleon  was  obliged  to  sign  an  act  of  abdication ;  and  the 
island  of  Elba,  with  a  sufficient  income,  was  assigned  him  for 
his  residence.  Louis  XVIII.  was  restored  ;  as  were  the  pope, 
and  the  other  sovereigns  who  had  been  deprived  of  their  do- 
minions. All  Europe  was  now  at  peace. 
1815  While  a  congress  was  engaged  in  arranging  the  affairs  of 
Europe,  news  arrived  that  Napoleon  had  left  Elba,  and  landed 
in  France.  He  was  received  everywhere  with  enthusiasm 
by  the  army,  and  Louis  was  obliged  to  quit  France,  and  to 
seek  a  refuge  in  the  Netherlands.  The  allied  princes  issued 
a  strong  manifesto,  and  large  armies  were  assembled  to  op- 
pose the  usurper.  Some  pa'rtial  advantages  attended  his  first 
operations;  but  on  the  field  of  Waterloo  (June  18),  his  last 
battle  was  fought.  The  genius  of  Wellington  and  the  steadi- 
ness of  the  British  troops  were  triumphant.  After  a  brief 
reign  of  100  days,  he  fled  to  the  sea-coast,  where  he  surren- 
dered himself  to  a  British  naval  commander :  and  six  years 
afterwards,  he  who  had  lorded  it  over  the  nations  expired  a 
captive  on  a  rock  of  the  Atlantic.  Louis  XVIII.  was  recon- 
ducted to  his  capita]  by  the  allied  armies,  and  firmly  seated 
on  his  throne ;  and  the  convulsions  which  had  agitated  Eu- 
rope for  a  quarter  of  a  century  at  length  terminated. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  power  of  Napoleon,  the  allied 
sovereigns  undertook  to  remodel  different  parts  of  Europe,  and 
they  proceeded  to  their  object  with  what  they  deemed  expe- 
diency in  view,  but  with  too  little  regard  to  popular  feelings 
or  to  national  and  hereditary  rights.  Denmark  was  forced  to 
yield  Norway  to  Sweden,  and  take  in  exchange  Riigen  and 
Pomerania ;  and  then  to  give  these  to  Prussia  for  Lauenburg. 
Prussia,  always  grasping,  received  a  large  portion  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  king  of  Saxony,  who  had  been  guilty  of  the 
crime  of  fidelity  to  Napoleon.  Austria  extended  her  sway, 
now  odious  to  the  people,  over  the  north  of  Italy.  Genoa  was 
forced  to  submit  to  become  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the 


mwH 


J.OUIS   XVUI.  AT  HIS   PEATH   CHARGING   GHARLtS   X. 


rJlAP    VIII  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EMPIRE  531 

king  of  Sardinia.  The  Netherlands  and  the  United  Prorincea 
were  formed  into  a  kingdom  for  the  prince  of  Orange:  a 
large  part  of  Poland  composed  one  for  the  emperor  of  Rus- 
sia. A  new  confederation  for  mutual  defence,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  internal  war,  was  entered  into  by  the  sovereign 
states  of  Germany,  who  promised  representative  constitutions 
to  their  subjects, — a  promise  which  but  few  of  them  have 
kept  England,  the  choragus  of  the  great  drama  which  was 
now  concluded,  who  had  shed  her  blood,  and  lavished  her 
treasure  so  unsparingly,  remained  covered  with  glory,  but 
deeply  immersed  in  debt.  She  had,  during  this  period,  ex- 
tended her  dominion  over  nearly  the  whole  peninsula  of  In 
dia ;  and  the  realms,  once  ruled  by  the  house  of  Timoor,  nov 
bow  beneath  her  commercial  sceptre. 

United  States  of  America. 
During  the  wars  which  convulsed  Europe,  after  the  ac- 
complishment of  their  freedom,  the  Americans  had  been  ad- 
vancing in  a  steady  march  of  national  prosperity.  An  attempt 
of  the  French  directory  to  enlist  them  in  their  struggle  with 
the  other  powers  of  Europe,  led  to  a  short  war  with  France, 
which  was  not  attended  with  any  important  consequences. 
The  second  president,  John  Adams,  directed  his  efforts  to  the 

formation  of  a  navy  ;  and  two  of  the  American  frigates,  the 

Constellation  and  Constitution,  captured  French  frigates  of  179* 
superior  force,  in  the  war  with  the  republic.  From  this  pe- 
riod a  strict  neutrality  being  observed,  the  Americans  acquired 
most  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  belligerent  powers  in  Eu- 
rope, and  extended  their  commerce  into  every  part  of  the 
world.  Napoleon  was  the  first  to  invade  this  privilege  of  the  lar 
Americans  in  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  issued  to  prevent 
them  from  trading  with  Great  Britain ;  which  were  followed 
by  the  British  orders  in  council,  prohibiting  them  from  inter- 
course with  France. 

A  farther  cause  of  irritation  against  Great  Britain,  existed 
in  the  custom  of  searching  American  vessels  on  the  ocean, 
and  impressing  from  them  British  seamen.  This  was  even  lS^' 
carried  so  far,  that  the  commander  of  a  British  frigate,  the 
Leopard,  after  demanding  four  seamen  from  the  American 
frigate  Chesapeake,  and  being  refused,  fired  a  broadside  into 
her,  and  compelled  her  commander,  taken  by  surprise,  to  sur- 
render the  men.     Three  of  their  number  were  Americans. 

The  depredations  of  both  the  French  and  English  on  Ameri- 
can commerce,  had  become  so  extensive,  that  the  congress, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  third  president,  Mr.  Jefferson 
ordered  ai:  embargo,  prohibiting  all  commerce  with  foreign 


A.  n 


o32 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD. 


PARTIIL 


A    D 

609 


countries.  This  measure,  however,  being  found  to  operate 
too  harshly  on  the  interests  of  the  commercial  states  of  the 
union,  the  embargo  law  was  repealed,  and  a  non-intercourse 
with  France  and  England  was  substituted. 

An  offer  was  made  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  that 
the  non-intercourse  should  be  discontinued  towards  either 
France  or  England,  as  soon  as  they  respectively  should  cease 
to  violate  the  commerce  of  the  republic.  Napoleon's  minister 
having  informed  the  American  agent  at  Paris  that  the  Berlin 
and  Milan  decrees  were  revoked,  the  non-intercourse  law,  as 
811.  regarded  France,  was  annulled.  But  as  the  official  notice  of 
this  act  was  withheld,  Great  Britain,  with  good  reason,  doubted, 
the  revocation  of  the  French  decrees.  When  a  formal  an- 
nouncement of  their  revocation  was  made  by  France,  the 
British  orders  in  council  were  also  revoked.  But  in  the  mean- 
time, the  United  States  had  declared  war  with  Great  Britain 
1812.  (June  18),  and  as  the  questions  of  search  and  impressment 
were  still  unsettled,  the  war  was  continued,  notwithstanding 
the  revocation  of  the  orders  in  council. 

The  first  object  of  the  United  States  was  the  conquest  of 
Canada.  General  William  Hull,  with  a  force  sufficient  for 
the  reduction  of  Upper  Canada,  passed  into  that  province, 
but  after  wasting  some  time  in  parade  and  indecision,  he  sur- 
rendered his  whole  force,  the  fortress  at  Detroit,  and  the  en- 
tire territory  of  Michigan,  to  the  British.  For  this  act,  he 
was  afterwards  tried,  sentenced  to  be  shot,  and  pardoned. 

On  the  19th  of  August,  the  American  frigate  Constitution, 
captain  Hull,  captured  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  reducing 
her  to  a  complete  wreck  in  15  minutes.  This  was  the  first 
of  a  series  of  naval  victories  which  have  completely  destroyed 
the  proud  claim  of  Britain  to  the  empire  of  the  ocean.  It 
was  speedily  followed  (Oct.  25),  by  the  capture  of  the  British 
frigate  Macedonian,  by  the  American  frigate  United  States, 
under  the  command  of  captain  Decatur,  oif  the  Western 
Isles. 

In  November  an  attempt  was  made  on  Queenstown,  in  Up- 
per Canada,  which,  after  a  severe  action,  and  a  heavy  loss  on 
both  sides  in  killed  and  wounded,  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
1000  Americans. 

In  December,  the  frigate  Constitution,  captain  Bainbridge, 
captured  the  British  frigate  Java,  off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  after 
an  action  of  one  hour,  in  which  the  Java  was  reduced  to  an 
unmanageabVe  wreck.  General  Winchester,  with  750  men, 
1813.  was  attacked  near  the  river  Raisin,  by  a^superior  force  of 
British  and  Indians,  under  general  Proctor ;  and  after  being  sur- 
rendered prisoners  of  war,  many  of  his  men  were  massacred 


CHAP.  VIII.        FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  EiMPlRE.  535 

by  the  Indians.  (Jan.  22).  An  attack  on  fort  Meigs,  by  ihe 
Britisii,  was  successfully  resisted  by  general  Harrison  (May). 
An  expedition  against  York,  in  Upper  Canada,  under  the 
command  of  general  Pike,  was  completely  successful.  After 
an  obstinate  defence,  the  place  was  carried  with  a  loss  of  750 
on  the  British  side.  The  heroic  Pike  was  mortally  wounded 
by  the  explosion  of  a  magazine.  Fort  George  and  fort  Erie 
were  shortly  afterwards  taken  by  the  Americans,  after  a  brisk 
action. 

An  attempt  was  made  by  the  British  naval  force  which 
blockaded  the  Chesapeake,  on  Norfolk ;  and,  on  its  failure, 
Hampton,  a  village  18  miles  from  Norfolk,  was  taken  and 
given  up  to  rapine  and  plunder. 

The  American  frigate  Chesapeake  was  captured  by  the 
British  frigate  Shannon,  off  Boston  harbor,  under  circumstancea 
which,  fairly  considered,  tend  materially  to  diminish  the  glory 
of  the  victory.  Fort  Sandusky  was  most  ably  defended  against 
general  Proctor,  with  1200  British  and  Indians,  by  major 
Croghan,  with  160  Americans.  (Aug.  1). 

In  September,  the  American  fleet  on  lake  Erie,  under  the 
command  of  captain  Perry,  captured  the  whole  British  squad- 
ron under  captain  Barclay,  after  a  well-contested  action  of 
three  hours.  Detroit  was  soon  after  retaken,  and  a  superior 
force  of  British  and  Indians,  under  general  Proctor,  routed 
by  the  Americans  under  general  Harrison.  The  fortune  of 
the  day  was  decided  by  a  mounted  regiment  under  colonel 
Johnson,  who  slew  with  his  own  hand,  during  the  action,  the 
celebrated  Indian  warrior  Tecumseh. 

Extensive  preparations  were  made  for  renewing  the  inva- 
sion of  Canada,  during  the  autumn ;  but  the  expedition  was 
abandoned,  apparently  for  want  of  concert  among  the  leading 
officers,  and  fort  George  and  fort  Niagara  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  British. 

Overtures  of  peace  being  made  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  a.b 
commissioners  on  both  sides  were  appointed  to  meet  at  Ghent  l^li 
for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  treaty. 

A  part  of  the  district  of  Maine,  east  of  Penobscot  river, 
was  occupied  by  the  British.  Naval  victories  were  achieved 
by  the  American  commanders.  Porter,  Warrington,  and  Bid- 
die,  and  the  victories  at  Chippeway  and  Niagara  witnessed 
the  improved  discipline  and  coolness  of  the  American  land 
forces. 

A  British  force  landed  from  the  fleet  in  the  Chesapeake, 
and,  conducted  by  general  Ross,  succeeded  in  penetrating  to 
the  city  of  Washington,  where  they  destroyed  the  public 
buildings,  library,  and  records ;  a  piece  of  vandalism  which 


536  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  HI 

has  scarcely  a  parallel  in  modern  warfare,  and  which  one  of 
their  own  ablest  statesmen  has  pronounced  a  disgrace  to  the 
British  nation.  A  subsequent  attempt  on  Baltimore  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  British,  and  the  death  of  general  Ross. 

The  British  squadron  on  lake  Champlain,  consisting  of  17 
vessels,  under  tlie  command  of  captain  Downie,  was  defeated 
by   the   American  squadron   of  14   vessels,   under  captain 
M'Donough ;  and  on  the  same  day,  the  British  army  under 
general  Prevost  was  repulsed,  with  heavy  loss,  in  an  attemp 
to  storm  the  forts  at  Plattsburg. 
815.      Sir  Edward  Packenham,  with  14,000  men,  made  a  descen 
on  New-Orleans,  (Jan.  8),  which  was  defended  by  genera 
Jackson  with  six  thousand  men,  principally  militia.     After  a 
well-contested  action,  the  British  were  repulsed  with  the  loss 
of  700  killed,  1400  wounded,  and  500  prisoners.  The  Ameri- 
can loss  was  13  killed,  39  wounded,  and  19  missing. 

The  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed  at  Ghent,  Dec.  24, 
1814,  and  ratified  by  the  prince  regent  of  England  Dec,  28. 
It  was  ratified  by  the  president  of  the  United  States,  Feb. 
1815. 

From  the  events  of  this  war,  the  Americans  have  learnt 
that  their  land  forces  are  more  fit  for  the  resistance  of  inva- 
sion, than  for  foreign  conquest ,  and  that  their  best  instru- 
ment of  national  defence  is  a  well-disciplined  navy:  the  same 
events  have  taught  other  nations,  that  this  people,  once  sup- 
posed to  be  for  ever  wedded  to  commerce  and  peace,  has  some 
claims  to  a  character  for  ability  and  courage  in  war. 


CHAP.  IX. 

TIMES  OF   THE   RESTORATION  AND   LOUIS   PHILLIPPB. 

State  of  Europe. 

The  ideas  of  liberty  and  equality  which  had  been  gene- 
rated by  the  French  Revolution  now  began  to  progress 
towards  their  true  development.  The  mass  of  the  people 
were  gradually  becoming  more  enlightened,  and  in  most  of 
Europe,  though  they  were  compelled  to  suffer  the  existence 
of  kings  and  nobility,  they  discussed  more  freely  the  cha- 
racter and  tendency  of  monarchy  and  aristocracy.  They 
had  seen  men,  sprung  from  the  humblest  stations  of  life, 
achieve,  by  their  own  exertions,  the  proudest  and  most 
glorious  actions,  and  had  seen  some  of  them  eit  upon  the 


?  "1 


Peter  I.  thb  Great. 


0HAP.  IX  RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILrPPE.  539 

thrones  to  which  they  had  long  believed  their  hereditary 
kings  had  a  divine  right.  This,  almost  as  much  as  the 
more  extensive  spread  of  education  and  refinement,  broke 
the  charm  by  w^hich  they  had  so  long  been  held,  and  made 
the  seats  of  kings  and  nobility  very  unstable.  Violent 
etorms  and  short  calms  were  the  principal  features  of  the 
time. 

France. 

The  evils  and  distress  produced  by  long  and  expensive 
wars  were  now  apparent.  Lyons  and  Grenoble  were  dis- 
tracted by  riots,  and  conspiracies  were  detected  in  every 
quarter.  The  foreign  troops  left  France,  and  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  she  was  admitted  as  a  party  to 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.  In  the  mean  time,  the  ministry 
was  divided  into  factions,  and  continually  involved  in  dis- 
sensions with  the  king.  Disputes  were  frequent  between 
the  nobility,  the  chambers,  and  the  people,  and  infringe- 
ments upon  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  derangements  in 
the  administering  of  the  laws  were  as  constantly  com 
plained  of  by  all  whose  rights  were  concerned.  The  royal- 
ists and  the  liberals  were  continually  striving  to  advance 
the  particular  interests  which  they  ftivored.  The  murder 
of  the  duke  of  Berri  caused  party  spirit  to  rage  beyond  all 
bounds,  and  violent  commotions  occurred  in  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  Laws  were  passed,  authorizing  the  arrest  of 
persons  merely  suspected  of  treason,  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  and  infringement  of  the  election  laws.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  acts,  it  was  announced  at  the  session  of  the 
chambers  that  conspiracy  continually  existed  in  France. 

In  1821,  further  restrictions  of  the  press  were  proposed,  but 
in  consequence  of  the  strength  of  the  opposition,  the  ministry 
resigned.  Several  insurrections  occurred  during  the  year 
1822.  A  conspiracy  was  detected  having  for  its  object  the 
promotion  of  the  interest  of  young  Napoleon,  and  a  few  more 
insurrections  occurred. 

In  1823,  100,000  men  were  sent  into  Spain  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  democracy  in  that  country,  and  to  force  its 
government  to  reconcile  its  sentiments  to  those  of  the  other 

fovernments  of  Europe.  The  war  terminated  favorably  for 
ranee,  of  which  circumstance  the  king  availed  himself  in 
order  to  gain  some  populaiity  with  the  army  and  the  people. 
Though  it  lasted  but  six  months,  the  expense  was  more 
than  two  hundred  millions  of  francs,  which  caused  loud 
complaints  from  the  liberal  party. 
In  Sentembcr,  1824,  Louis  XVIII.  died.    His  brother 


540  HTSTOnT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PART  IH. 

Charles  X.,  became  king,  and  was  crowned  at  Rheims  in 
May,  1826.  The  independence  of  Hayti  was  acknow- 
ledged and  commercial  intercourse  established  with  the 
Spanish  American  republics,  a  treaty  of  commerce  con- 
cluded with  Great  Britain  and  another  with  Brazil.  The 
opposition  gained  a  great  triumph  (1827)  in  defeating  the 
bill  for  the  further  restriction  of  the  press.  The  ministry 
dissolved  the  chamber  with  force,  thereby  hoping  to  secure 
a  large  majority  at  the  next  election.  But  the  liberal  party 
triumphed,  and  Paris  was  filled  with  rejoicings. 

France  interfered  (1828)  in  the  dispute  between  Turkey 
and  Greece,  and  sent  a  force  to  the  assistance  of  the  latter 
country.  In  the  organization  of  a  new  ministry,  (1829,) 
prince  Polignac,  an  unpopular  ultra-royalist,  was  intrusted 
with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  This  hastened  the 
crisis  which  had  become  inevitable.  Though  France  was 
prosperous  in  her  external  appearance,  yet  the  people  were 
irritated  beyond  endurance  by  seeing  their  most  valued 
liberties  trampled  upon  and  torn  from  them. 

At  the  opening  of  the  session  of  the  chambers,  (1830,)  the 
king  announced  his  determination  to  maintain  his  policy, 
if  necessary,  by  force  of  arms,  and  also  announced  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Algiers.  The  deputies  being 
firm  yet  respectful  in  their  declaration  that  concurrence  no 
longer  existed  between  the  government  and  the  nation,  the 
chamber  was  prorogued.  The  new  election  produced  a 
still  stronger  majority  against  the  ministry.  An  ordinance 
being  presented  to  the  king  by  the  ministry,  which  sus- 
pended the  liberty  of  the  press,  several  of  the  liberal 
journals  refused  to  obey.  This  brought  on  the  revolution 
of  the  Three  Days.  The  king  abdicated,  and,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  deputies,  Louis  Philippe  of  Orleans  ascended 
the  throne.  Many  alterations  favorable  to  popular  rights 
were  made  in  the  constitution,  which  Louis  Philippe  swore 
to  maintain.  The  first  event  under  his  reign  was  the  trial 
of  the  ministers  of  the  late  king  for  high  treason.  They 
were  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life. 

Alarming  riots  occurred  in  Paris,  (1830,)  in  consequence 
of  an  attempt  to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Berri.  A  change  of  ministers  succeeded. 
Riots  still  occurred  in  Paris  and  Lyons,  and  in  his  tour 
through  the  kingdom,  Louis  Philippe  found  it  in  a  condi 
tion  bordering  on  anarchy.  War  was  declared  against 
Portugal,  but  it  was  of  short  duration.  Amid  the  frequent 
riots,  the  anniversary  of  the  Three  Days  occurred,  and  it 
was  celebrated  in  the  most  splendid  manner.    Fifty  thou- 


CHAP.  IX.  RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  541 

sand  men  were  sent  to  Belgium,  to  assist  that  country  in 
its  struggle  with  the  Dutch.  On  the  arrival  of  the  news  of 
tlio  fall  of  Warsaw,  riots  broke  out  in  every  direction. 
Mobs  attacked  the  hotels  of  the  ministers,  and  revolution 
again  threatened.  But  the  army  and  the  ministry  con- 
tinuing loyal,  concessions  were  made  ana  the  danger 
averted.  The  most  important  acts  of  the  assembly  during 
its  session  were,  the  abolition  of  the  hereditary  peerage,_an 
appropriation  of  a  large  sum  for  the  relief  of  the  working 
classes,  and  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the  Bourbon  and 
Napoleon  families.  Great  distress  among  the  workmen  of 
Lyons  produced  an  insurrection,  which  was  suppressed  by 
the  duke  of  Orleans  and  marshal  Soult.  Measures  were 
taken  to  relieve  the  workmen. 

In  1832,  the  difficulty  with  the  United  States  was  adjusted. 
The  Asiatic  cholera  appeared  and  spread  so  rapidly  that  the 
chambers  were  obliged  to  adjourn,  and  the  prime  minister 
was  attacked  and  died.  The  terror  and  distress  caused  by 
this  disease  could  not  suppress  the  spirit  of  insurrection. 
Riots  occurred  in  Paris  at  the  funeral  of  general  Lamarque, 
and  continued  several  days;  being  suppressed  only  with 
bloodshed.  The  expedition  into  Belgium  and  the  war  in 
Algiers  both  proving  successful,  rendered  the  government 
popular  for  a  time  with  all  classes.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  assassinate  the  king,  in  November,  but  the  person  who 
made  the  attempt  escaped  in  the  crowd. 

The  year  1833  was  one  of  comparative  calm.  No  out- 
breaks occurred,  both  parties  contenting  themselves  with 
warring  upon  each  other  through  the  journals.  Some  of 
the  leading  members  of  the  republican  associations  were 
arrested  and  tried  for  conspiracy,  but  found  to  be  innocent 
of  the  charge. 

In  March,  1834,  the  chamber  of  deputies  annulled  a 
treaty  concluded  in  1831,  by  the  dukede  Broglie  and 
general  Sebastiani  with  the  American  minister,  by  refusing 
to  pay  the  indemnity  to  the  United  States  for  the  injuries 
inflicted  upon  American  ships  and  commerce.  In  conse- 
quence, the  ministry  was  reorganized,  under  the  presi- 
dency, howtjver,  as  before,  of  marshal  Soult.  Manufactures 
and  trade  being  greatly  depressed,  serious  riots  occurred; 
first  at  Lyons  and  Marseilles,  and  then  at  Paris.  In  April, 
a  '^veaty  wiS  concluded  at  London,  between  Great  Britain, 
France",  Spain  and  Portugal,  which  was  commonly  called 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.  A  difficulty  occurring  between 
the  king  and  marshal  Soult,  the  latter  resigned  his  post  as 
president  of  the  council,  and  was  succeeded  by  marshal 
46 


542  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

Girard.  The  prisons  were  filled  with  persons  accused  of 
participating  in  the  various  insurrections,  and  the  numbei 
was  so  great  that  government  was  at  a  loss  to  know  how 
to  dispose  of  them.  The  president  of  the  council  was  of 
opinion  that  an  amnesty  should  be  granted;  and  that  mear 
sure  being  resisted  by  the  king  and  other  members  of  the 
council,  the  president  resigned  his  post.  The  whole  ministry 
was  dissolved,  and  a  new  one  formed,  under  the  presidency 
of  Maret,  duke  of  Bassano.  This  lasted  but  four  days,  and 
gave  place  to  the  former  one,  under  the  presidency  of 
marshal  Mortier,  with  Guizot  and  Thiers  as  leading  mem- 
bers. 

In  February,  1835,  a  difiPerence  with  the  chambers  was 
the  cause  of  the  dissolution  of  the  ministry.  Marshal  Soult 
formed  a  new  ministry,  after  a  great  deal  of  exertion,  but  it 
fell  to  pieces  in  four  weeks.  The  deputies  expressed  a 
desire  that  the  former  ministers  should  resume  their  places, 
and  the  king  assented,  naming  the  duke  of  Broglie  as  pre- 
sident of  the  council  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  In 
April,  the  chamber  of  deputies  acknowledged  the  validity 
of  the  American  claims,  and  made  no  further  difficulty  in 
providing  for  their  payment.  Of  about  1200  prisoners  held 
for  being  concerned  in  the  riots,  only  164  were  tried.  The 
trials  lasted  till  the  middle  of  August,  when  52  were  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  the  Paris  prisoners 
escaped  from  the  place  where  they  were  confined. 

In  July,  at  the  anniversary  of  the  Revolution  of  1830, 
while  the  king  was  reviewing  the  troops  of  the  line  and  the 
national  guards,  an  "  infernal  machine"  exploded  near 
where  the  king  was  standing,  killing  forty  persons,  among 
whom  was  marshal  Mortier.  The  king  escaped  without 
injury.  The  assassin  was  arrested,  and,  with  two  accom- 
plices, executed.  Attempts  were  made  by  the  ministry  to 
strengthen  the  power  of  the  king,  by  presenting  to  the 
chambers  three  laws  for  their  approval.  One  almost  anni- 
hilating the  liberty  of  the  press,  another  allowing  the  jurors 
to  vote  by  ballot,  and  a  third  empowering  the  minister  of 
justice  to  constitute  as  many  courts  of  assize  as  may  be 
necessary  to  proceed  simultaneously  against  rioters.  The 
laws  were  sanctioned  by  the  chambers  after  muah  opposi 
tion. 

In  1836,  the  trial  of  the  Paris  insurgents  was  concluded, 
and  nineteen  or  twenty  condemned  to  be  transported  for 
life.  A  deficit  occurring  in  the  revenue,  a  difficulty  was 
brought  about  between  the  king  and  the  deputies.  The 
lesult  was  the  resignation  of  the  ministry,  in  February.     A 


4*; 


^ 


The  Empress  Cathkbixe  !. 


llMllllWlllllllllllllHllll'V'll 


CHAP.  IX.        BKBTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  545 

new  one  was  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Thiers.  In 
June,  a  third  attempt  was  made  upon  the  life  of  Louis 
Philippe.  He  was  shot  at  as  he  was  leaving  the  Tuileries 
in  his  carriage.  No  injury  was  done,  and  the  assassin,  an 
enthusiastic  young  republican,  was  tried  by  the  peers,  and 
guillotined  on  the  11th  of  July.  The  new  ministry  was 
very  active,  and  their  policy  was  of  a  bolder  tone  than  the 
preceding  one.  But  a  difficulty  soon  ensued  between  the 
king  and  his  ministers,  and  Thiers  and  five  of  the  others 
resigned.  In  September,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  with 
count  Mole  as  president  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
They  endeavored  to  tranquillize  the  public  mind  at  home 
and  maintain  friendly  relations  abroad.  The  ministers  of 
Charles  X.  who  had  been  imprisoned,  were  set  at  liberty. 
In  October,  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  made  an  attempt  at 
insurrection  at  Strasl)urg,  but  having  few  followers,  he  was 
taken  and  shipped  off  to  America.  The  other  conspirators 
were  arraigned  before  the  court  of  assize  of  the  Lower 
Rhine,  but  the  jury  refused  to  convict  them.  In  December, 
another  attempt  was  made  upon  the  life  of  Louis  Philippe 
by  a  workman  named  Meunier.  The  king  narrowly  es- 
caped. Meunier  was  brought  to  trial  and  banished  for  ten 
years. 

In  January,  1837,  the  ministry  made  new  attempts  to 
fortify  the  executive  branch  of  the  government.  Several 
measures,  with  that  object,  were  rejected  by  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  The  ministry  were  divided  upon  the  pro- 
priety of  a  dissolution  of  the  chamber,  and  Guizot  and  three 
others  resigned  their  places.  A  new  organization  took 
place,  but  it  was  far  from  satisfactory.  In  the  course  of 
the  summer,  an  improvement  took  place  in  the  affairs  of 
the  French  in  Algiers,  and  the  course  of  events  in  Spain 
appeared  more  propitious.  The  chamber  of  deputies  still 
continuing  at  variance  with  the  ministry,  it  was  dissolved 
on  the  4th  of  October.  The  government  had  expectations 
that  the  newly  elected  chamber  would  be  more  favorable  to 
them  than  the  other  had  been,  but  its  expectations  were 
disappointed.  They  met  in  December,  but  nothing  impor- 
tant occurred. 

In  February,  1838,  a  measure  was  presented  by  a  liberal 
member,  for  reducing  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  which 
was  adopted.  The  government  sustained  a  defeat  of  the 
measures  which  they  recommended.  Another  plot  to 
destroy  the  king's  life  was  discovered,  and  the  person  in 
whose  hands  the  machine  that  was  to  do  the  work  was 
found,  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  deportation.  The  minLi- 
46* 


548  HISTORY  OF  THE  WOEU).  PAKT  m. 

try  pursued  a  very  dictatorial  couree  towards  some  of  the 
weaKer  Bovereign  states.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  had  re- 
turned from  America  to  Europe,  and  published  a  pamphlet 
under  an  assumed  name,  setting  forth  his  claims  to  the 
throne  of  France.  The  person  whose  name  he  had  assumed 
was  arrested  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  five  years, 
and  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  The  government  then  demanded 
of  the  Swiss  confederacy  the  expulsion  of  the  prince  from 
their  territory,  where  he  had  taken  refuge  on  his  return. 
The  Swiss  were  not  disposed  to  yield  to  the  demand,  and 
hostilities  would  have  commenced  had  not  prince  Louis 
voluntarily  quit  Switzerland.  War  was  declared  against 
Mexico,  and  the  republic  of  La  Plata.  The  ministry  met 
with  the  most  strenuous  opposition  in  most  of  their  mea- 
sures, and  Guizot  and  Thiers,  at  the  head  of  their  respective 
parties,  exerted  themselves  to  effect  its  overthrow. 

In  January,  1839,  the  ministry  thought  it  prudent  to 
retire  before  the  storm  would  break  upon  them,  and  they 
resigned  their  places.  Marshal  Soult  was  commissioned  to 
organize  a  new  ministry ;  but  he  declared  it  impossible 
without  the  ministry  could  comprehend  Theirs.  The  king 
would  not  agree  to  that,  and  recalled  his  former  ministers, 
and  dissolved  the  chamber  of  deputies.  The  appeal  to  the 
electors  was  unsuccessful;  the  opposition  triumphed,  and 
count  Mole  and  his  colleagues  once  more  resigned.  (March 
9th).  For  two  months,  the  greatest  confusion  pervaded 
every  department  of  the  government.  A  ministry  could 
not  be  organized  till  the  middle  of  May,  when  marshal 
Soult  was  prevailed  upon  to  accept  the  post  of  president  of 
the  council  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  The  council 
was  composed  of  widely  different  elements ;  the  only  thing 
they  could  agree  upon  to  keep  them  together  was  the  non- 
action upon  all  the  questions  of  difference  between  the 
parties  which  divided  the  chambers  and  the  country.  In 
consequence,  nothing  of  moment  occurred  during  the  legis- 
lative session,  which  ended  in  August.  On  the  re-assem 
bling  of  the  chambers  in  December,  the  state  of  French 
affairs  in  Africa  and  Syria,  and  the  feeble  and  uncertain 
policy  of  the  ministers,  produced  great  embarrassment.  In 
the  course  of  a  month,  the  government  found  themselves  in 
a  minority  on  a  question  of  appropriation  of  500,000  francs 
to  the  duke  of  Nemours,  on  his  marriage. 

In  February,  1840,  the  ministers  resigned  their  places, 
and  the  king  found  a  council  decidedly  liberal  his  only 
resource  for  carrying  on  the  government.  Thiers  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  council  and  minister  of  foreign 


JHAl'.  ES.  RESTORATION  ASTD  LOUIS  PHILIPPB.  547 

affairs,  and  the  rest  of  the  ministry  were  of  the  same  party. 
Great  expectations  were  entertained  by  the  people  in  regard 
to  the  new  ministry,  but  they  were  disappointed.     The 
measures  and  policy  of  the  ultra-royalists  who  had  pre- 
ceded them  were  continued.     The  severe  laws  against  the 
liberty  of  the  press,  and  the  narrow  confinement  of  the 
right  of  suffrage,  were  not  attempted  to  be  repealed  or 
modified.     The  reduction  of  the  interest  on  the  public  debt 
was  rejected  by  the  peers.     A  considerable  sum  was  ap- 
propriated by  the  chambers  during  the  session,  for  the  con- 
struction of  railroads  and  steam  vessels  ;  and  another,  of 
1,000,000  francs,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  remains 
of  Napoleon  from  St.  Helena,  to  be  interred  with  great 
pomp  and  ceremony  in  the  capital  of  his  former  empire. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  session,  Thiers  made  great  efforts 
to  induce  the  great  European  powers  to  allow  the  pasha  of 
Egypt  to  retain  possession  of  Syria;  but  he  failed  in  accom- 
plishing his  object.    The  other  powers  of  Europe  concluded 
a  treaty  among  themselves,  without  waiting  for  the  acqui- 
escence of  France.     The  announcement  of  this  treaty  pro- 
duced the  greatest  excitement   in  France,   and  war  was 
generally  demanded.    The  army  and  navy  were  augmented, 
and  great  activity  prevailed  at  all  the  ports  and  arsenals 
of  the  country.     In  the  mean  time,  events  occurred  which 
prevented  the  king  from  assenting  to  the  design  of  declaring 
war  against  four  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe.     One  was 
the  landing  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  at  Boulogne,  with 
the  hope  of  producing  a  revolution  in  his  favor.     No  one 
joined  him,  and  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  m  the 
fortress  of  Ham.     The  other  was  the  fifth  attempt  to  as- 
sassinate the  king.     He  was  fired  at  with  a  musket  loaded 
with  six  balls,  while  reviewing  the  national  guard,  in  Octo- 
ber, but,  as  before,  escaped  all  injury.     The  assassin  was 
injured  by  the  bursting  of  the  gun,  and  afterwards  was 
guillotined.     The  king's  being  unwilling  to  denounce  the 
treaty  by  which  France  had  been  dishonored,  was  the  cause 
of  the  resignation  of  Thiers  and  his  colleagues.     A  new 
ministry  was  organized,  with  marshal  Soult  as  its  presi- 
dent, and  Guizot  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  deci- 
dedly the  most  influential   member.     This   ministry  was 
well  supported  and  gradually  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
nation.    The  emperor  Napoleon's  remains  arrived  in  France 
in  December,  and  the  deposition  of  them  in  the  dome  of  the 
Invalids  produced  far  loss  excitement  than  expected. 

The  year  1841  opened  with  brilliant  prospects  for  the 
new  ministry.     The  plan  for  the  fortification  of  the  city  of 


548  BISTORT  or  the  world.  part  in. 

Paris  was  submitted  to  the  chambers  and  approved  in 
February.  The  object  of  the  ministry  was  the  preservation 
of  the  peace  of  Europe,  as  they  proclaimed,  and  their  policy 
was  systematically  directed  to  that  end  for  the  rest  of  their 
term  of  service  as  a  council.  The  most  important  events 
which  occurred  between  the  close  of  the  session  of  the 
chambers  in  June,  and  their  assembling  in  December,  were 
the  tumults  at  Toulouse  and  other  places  in  the  South,  on 
occasion  of  a  new  assessment  of  taxes,  which  were  promptly 
quelled  by  a  military  force ;  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the 
lives  of  three  of  the  king's  sons,  for  which  the  guilty  was 
condemned  to  deportation ;  and  the  diminution  of  the  army 
by  about  100,000  men. 

In  April,  1842,  Hernjann,  the  minister  of  finance  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Lacave-Saplagne ;  but  the  policy  of 
the  administration  continued  precisely  as  before.  In  May, 
while  the  deputies  were  discussing  a  law  authorizing  the 
construction  of  nine  hundred  leagues  of  railroad,  a  shock- 
ing accident  occurred  on  the  railroad  between  Paris  and 
Versailles,  by  which  two  hundred  persons  lost  their  lives, 
among  whom  was  the  circumnavigator,  Dumont  d'Urville, 
and  his  family.  The  passage  of  the  law,  however,  was  not 
prevented  by  this  accident.     The  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  ap- 

Earent  to  the  throne,  was  thrown  off  the  carriage  in  which 
e  was  riding  and  killed.  This  caused  much  discussion  in 
the  chamber  of  deputies  in  regard  to  the  regency,  in  case 
of  the  death  of  the  king  before  the  count  of  Paris  should 
become  of  age.  It  was  finally  decided  that  the  duke  of 
Nemours,  who  was  personally  unpopular,  should  be  the 
regent.  For  three  or  four  years  after  the  settlement  of  this 
question,  France  remained  comparatively  calm ;  the  Guizot 
ministry  growing  stronger  every  day,  maintaining  peace 
with  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  developing  the  resources  of 
the  nation.  The  only  events  of  importance  that  occurred 
were  the  taking  of  the  Marquesas  and  Society  Islands  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  interchange  of  visits  between 
Louis  Philippe  and  que3n  Victoria.  The  latter  is  some- 
thmg  anomalous  in  French  history.  After  the  short  calm, 
the  factions  resumed  their  disputes ;  and,  with  the  aid  of 
the  clubs  and  an  ultra-democratic  press,  they  kept  the 
populace  of  Paris  in  a  constant  excitement.  On  the  part 
of  the  king,  either  from  necessity  or  the  desire  of  power, 
the  principles  which  he  had  recognised  in  1830  were  violated 
and  disowned  by  him.  Great  efforts  were  made  by  the 
ministry  to  give  as  much  power  to  the  king  as  was  possible 


W'^^' 


Tke  Empbess  Elizabetil 


Andrew  Jackson. 


CHAP.  IX.  RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPB,  551 

This,  and  the  spread  of  the  socialist  and  communist  prin- 
ciples, hastened  the  progress  of  things  to  a  crisis. 

Great  Britain. 

The  peace  of  1815  found  the  poorer  classes,  particularly 
those  inhabiting  the  manufacturing  districts,  m  a  state  of 
destitution.  Extensive  failures  of  the  crops  in  1816  and 
1817  increased  the  distress  to  such  an  extent  that  in  June, 
1819,  serious  riots  broke  out  through  a  large  extent  of 
country.  These  were  followed  by  mass  meetings,  at  which 
radical  measures  of  reform  were  proposed  and  advocated 
by  popular  speakers.  The  government  interfered,  and  at 
Manchester,  a  large  mob  was  dispersed  and  many  persons 
killed.  This  increased  the  excitement.  Parliament  forbade 
the  keeping  of  fire-arms  by  the  populace,  private  military 
exercise,  the  unauthorized  assembling  of  mass  meetings^ 
and  the  publication  of  inflammatory  or  irreligious  writings. 

The  death  of  George  III.,  in  January,  1820,  was  produc- 
tive of  very  little  change  in  the  social  condition  of  the 
nation.  The  return  of  agricultural  prosperity,  the  increase 
of  the  foreign  demand  for  manufactures,  and  the  renewal 
of  specie  payments  alone  caused  discontent  to  subside.  A 
conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  ministers,  of  which  Arthur 
Thistlewood  was  the  leader,  was  detected  soon  after  the 
return  of  prosperity,  and  Thistlewood  executed. 

The  disgraceful  trial  of  the  queen  tended  to  exasperate 
all  classes  and  parties.  But  the  pursuing  malice  of  her 
enemies  was  arrested  by  her  death  in  August,  1821,  and 
the  king,  George  IV.,  regained  a  portion  of  his  former 
popularity  by  making  a  tour  through  the  country.  But 
the  diminution  of  one  evil  only  increased  another.  By  in- 
creasing the  value  of  money,  parliament  had  decreased  the 
value  of  every  thing  else.    Rents  rose,  and  thousands  of  the 

f)easantry,  of  Ireland  especially,  were  unable  to  pay  their 
andlords.  Ireland  was  already  torn  by  social  and  religious 
differences,  and  it  now  became  a  prey  to  riots,  secret  mur- 
ders, and  every  species  of  violence.  Nor  has  its  condition 
materially  improved  up  to  the  present  time. 

During  the  Greek  struggle  for  independence,  the  subjects 
of  Great  Britain  were  allowed  to  aid  the  patriots,  and  many 
availed  themselves  of  the  privilcc;e.  In  1825,  the  nation- 
ality of  the  new  American  republics  was  acknowledged, 
and,  during  the  same  year,  the  king  prohibited  the  formei 
privilege  of  assisting  the  Greeks.  The  year  1826  was  sig- 
nalized by  mammoth  schemes  of  speculation,  followed  by  a 
sudden  coUapse,  and  ruinous   bankruptcies.      Bank  after 


1^2  msTOET  or  the  world.  part  iil 

oank  broke,  the  currency  became  disordered,  and  the  con- 
st^qucnt  distress  was  so  great  that  it  called  for  the  immo- 
fliato  interposition  of  government.  The  same  year.  Great 
Britain  unfted  with  Russia  to  induce  or  compel  Turkey  to 
acknowledge  the  freedom  of  Greece;  and,  in  the  next  year, 
the  treaty  of  London,  for  the  settlement  of  that  question, 
was  concluded  between  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France. 
In  1829,  the  Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  passed,  which,  in  a 
great  degree,  removed  the  civil  disabilities  from  the  Roman 
Catholics.  In  June,  1830,  George  IV.  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  William  IV.  In  1831,  after  the 
Whigs  came  into  power,  the  Reform  Bill,  regulating  parlia- 
mentary representation,  was  passed. 

The  first  session  of  the  reformed  parliament  was  opened 
on  the  29th  of  January,  1833,  and  brought  to  a  close  on  the 
29th  of  the  following  August.     Among  its  most  important 
acts,  were  two,  regulating  the  juries  and  the  clergy  of  Ire- 
land, together  with  the  "  Irish  coercion  act,"  which  im- 
posed stringent  regulations  upon  the  inhabitants  of  that 
country.     The  act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  West 
India  colonies  was  also  passed — twenty  millions  of  pounds 
being  granted  to  the  proprietors  as  an  indemnification.   The 
charter  of  the  East  India  Company  was  renewed  for  the  term 
of  twenty  years,  under  certain  restrictions.     The  second 
session  under  the  new  Reform  Bill  was  occupied  with  the 
afi"airs  of  Ireland,  where  much  disorder  continued  to  prevail. 
The  king,  being  opposed  to  the  changes  introduced  by  the 
Whigs,  dismissed  the  ministry,  and  engaged  Sir  Robert 
Peel  to  form  another.    But  the  Whigs  kept  the  favor  of  the 
nation  and  a  majority  in  parliament.     The  new  ministry, 
therefore,  kept  their  places  but  a  short  time.    They  resigned 
their  places,  and  Viscount  Melbourne  was  employed,  and 
succeeded  in  forming  a  ministry  which  continued  during 
the  rest  of  the  reign  of  William.     The  most  important  acts 
passed  during  the  remaining  two  years  of  the  reign  were — 
one  reforming  the  municipal  corporations;    the  marriage 
act,  which  permitted  marriage  by  any  ceremony  that  the 
parties  preferred,  or  merely  before  a  magistrate ;  an  act  for 
the  registering  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages,  and  regula- 
tions respecting  Canada  and  Ireland. 

On  the  20th  of  June,  1837,  the  king  died.  William  was 
succeeded  by  his  niece,  Alexandrina  Victoria,  under  the 
title  of  Victoria  I.  She  was  in  her  nineteenth  year.  The 
immediate  consequence  of  the  accession  of  a  female  to  the 
throne,  was  the  separation  of  Hanover  from  the  rest  of  the 
kingdom,  and  its  retrocession  to  the  male  lino  <>f  the  family. 


OHAP.  QC.       BBSTOBATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPX.  653 

The  queen  found  Canada  in  revolt;  Ireland  in  agitation; 
England  discontented;  parties  exasperated;  and  every  other 
cause  of  disorder  aggravated  by  the  movements  of  the  Re- 

Eeal  Associations,  organized  and  conducted  by  O'Connell. 
lOrd  Durham  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Canada, 
and  given  almost  dictatorial  powers.  Bills  for  the  relief  ot 
Ireland  were  passed.  But  discontent  was  not  suppressed. 
In  1808,  a  large  portion  of  the  nopulation  banded  themselves 
together  under  the  name  of  Chartists,  claiming  the  adop- 
tion, as  fundamental  law,  of  a  charter,  which  would  grant 
universal  suffrage,  vote  by  ballot,  annual  parliaments,  the 
abolition  of  property  qualifications  in  members  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  their  remuneration  by  money.  The  same 
year,  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  formed,  the  members 
of  which  strenuously  advocated  the  doctrines  of  free  trade. 
The  influence  of  these  two  associations  has  been  felt  se- 
riously in  England  to  the  present  day. 

On  the  10th  of  February,  1840,  queen  Victoria  married 
prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  to  whom  parliament 
voted  thirty  thousand  pounds.  Soon  after  this  event,  diffi- 
culties occurred  with  the  United  States,  with  the  Afghans, 
and  with  the  Chinese.  The  latter  occurred  in  consequence 
of  the  efforts  by  the  Chinese  to  suppress  the  illicit  intro- 
duction of  opium  into  their  empire  by  British  vessels. 
Collisions  between  the  natives  and  the  English  followed, 
and  war  was  soon  declared.  Sir  Henry  Gough,  the  English 
commander,  after  various  triumphs  over  the  Chinese,  ap- 
peared before  the  city  of  Nankin,  when  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded.  (August,  1842.)  Great  Britain  received 
twenty-one  millions  of  dollars,  the  island  of  Hong  Kong, 
and  admission  into  several  Chinese  ports.  In  the  same 
year,  the  difficulties  with  the  United  States  and  with  Af- 
ghanistan were  settled  by  treaty. 

The  Melbourne  ministry  continued  under  Victoria  till 
1841,  when  it  lost  the  confidence  of  parliament,  and  a  new 
ministry  was  formed,  with  Sir  Robert  Peel  at  its  head. 
The  parliamentary  session  of  1842  was  distinguished  by  the 
enactment  of  a  new  corn-law,  in  which  the  duties  previously 
imposed  were  in  some  degree  reduced.  In  1843  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  was  instituted,  by  about  four  hundred 
clergymen,  who  would  no  longer  submit  to  civil  interven- 
tion in  religious  affairs.  In  Ireland,  affairs  had  reached  a 
crisis,  and  O'Connell,  with  a  number  of  the  leading  re- 
pealers, was  arrested.  After  trial,  O'Connell  was  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  twelve  months,  to  pay  a  fine  of  two 
thousand  pounds,  and  to  give  sureties  in  the  sum  of  ten 


S54  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  UL 

thousand  pounds  to  keej)  the  peace  for  seven  years.  In 
1844,  this  decision  of  the  judges  was  reversed  by  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  Peel  ministry  continued  In  office  until 
December,  1845,  when  a  difference  occurring  among  its 
members,  lord  Wellington  resigned  his  post,  and  he  was 
followed  by  the  entire  cabinet.  But  from  tne  difficulty  of 
organizing  another,  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  again  called  to 
resume  his  office.  In  1846,  the  Oregon  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  United  States,  and  the  British  corn-laws  were 
repealed.  The  most  important  events  of  the  year  1847 
were  the  distress  and  agitation  in  Ireland,  the  war  in  India, 
the  efforts  to  repress  the  disorders  in  Canada,  and  the  ten- 
dency of  the  masses  towards  the  causes  which  produced  the 
convulsions  of  the  following  year. 

Spain. 

For  six  years  after  his  restoration,  Ferdinand  VII.  pur- 
sued a  career  of  absolute  despotism.     The  officers  and  sup- 
porters of  Joseph  Bonaparte  were  driven  from  the  country 
or  thrown  into  prison ;  the  Inquisition  was  re-established ; 
monkish  tyranny  resumed  its  sway,  and  every  form  of 
justice  or  of  popular  right  was  openly  violated.     This  head- 
long course  of  blind  bigotry  was  the  cause  of  violent  com- 
motions. The  army  became  discontented ;  bands  of  ^erillas 
ravaged  different  quarters;  and  various  conspiracies  were 
formed,  either  for  petty  revenge  or  the  overthrow  of  the 
government.     While  growing  weaker  at  home,  the  govern- 
ment was  rendering  itself  contemptible  abroad.     In  1820, 
Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  for  five  millions  of 
dollars.     The  ministry  was  changed  twenty-five  times  in 
five  years.     During  this  period,  the  American  colonies  re- 
volted, and  an  attempt  to  send  an  army  against  them  was 
attended  by  the  defection  of  four  battalions,  who  chose  their 
own  leaders,  proclaimed  the  constitution  of  1812,  and  took 
possession  of  La  Caracca.     The  attempts  made  to  dislodge 
them  failed;  and  advancing  through  the  country,  they  ex- 
cited a  spirit  of  revolt  among  the  people,  and  called  upon 
them  to  re-establish  the  constitution.     They  were  joined  by 
the  royal  troops ;  so  that  Ferdinand,  as  contemptible  for  his 
weakness  as  he  was  odious  for  his  tyranny,  declared  him- 
self willing  to  summon  the  Cortes  of  1812,  and  submit  to 
the  constitution  of  that  year.     A  new  ministry  was  ap- 
pointed, the  Inquisition  abolished,  and  an  entire  change 
effected  in  the  offices  of  the  government.     But  the  country 
was  torn  by  factions,  and  these  popular  victories  failed  to 
restore  peace. 


W--:9mM'^^^-':^ 


^v,   \ 


O^ 


Field-Marshal  Suwakbow. 


The  Emperor  of  Chin^ 


CHAP.  IX.  BE8T0RATI0N  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPB.  557 

In  March,  1821,  the  cortes  declared  the  whole  country 
in  danger.  In  September,  an  extraordinary  cortes  was 
summoned,  and  about  the  same  time,  news  was  received 
that  Mexico  had  declared  herself  independent,  that  Lima 
was  occupied  by  the  Chilians,  and  that  other  losses  had 
occurred  in  the  West  Indies.  The  troubles  abroad  quieted, 
in  some  degree,  the  dissensions  at  home.  The  king  sanc- 
tioned a  few  vigorous  measures  passed  by  the  cortes ;  but 
they  did  not  render  the  Spanish  arms  successful  in  America, 
nor  increase  the  popularity  of  Ferdinand.  Military  riots 
occurred,  even  in  the  royal  palace;  and  an  attempt  to 
restore  despotism  by  overthrowing  the  constitution,  was 
defeated  by  the  national  guards.  A  new  ministry,  favor- 
able to  liberal  principles,  was  appointed,  and  the  king, 
whose  authority  was  now  extremely  weak,  made  every 
concession  demanded  of  him.  Not  long  after,  the  apostoh- 
cal  party  favorable  to  despotism  and  monkish  rule  was 
defeated,  and  its  leaders  driven  from  the  country.  The 
other  European  powers  interfered ;  and  the  French  ambas- 
sador at  Madrid  demanded  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  to 
power,  preparatory  to  his  effecting  permanent  arrangements 
with  the  people.  The  ministers  of  Prussia,  Austria,  and 
Russia  made  similar  demands  ;  while  England  advised  the 
cortes  to  yield,  offering  her  mediation.  The  Spanish  go- 
vernment answered  in  a  note,  indignantly  repelling  the 
foreign  interference.  The  French  stationed  lUO.OOO  men 
near  the  Pyrenees,  from  whence  they  marched  towards 
Madrid,  proclaiming  that  they  came  to  deliver  the  country 
from  the  evils  of  civil  war. 

Ferdinand,  who  had  entailed  wretchednes*  upon  the 
nation,  was  now  passive.  The  French  declared  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  king,  and  nullified  all  the  acts  of  the  cortes. 
War  being  declared  against  France,  Ferdinand  prosecuted 
it  with  his  usual  weakness,  vacillation,  and  blindness.  In  a 
short  time,  his  army  of  120,000  men  was  beaten,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  in  the  hands  of  the  French.  A 
guerilla  warfare  succeeded,  which  was  conducted  with  all 
the  circumstances  of  crime  and  barbarity  usually  attendant 
upon  a  desultory  warfare.  In  June,  the  theatre  of  war  was 
transferred  to  the  southern  provinces.  On  the  15th  of  July, 
the  heights  of  Corunna  were  carried  by  general  Bourck 
after  a  bloody  action  of  five  hours.  Skirmishes  occurred 
from  time  to  time  until  the  1st  of  October,  when  Ferdinand, 
under  the  protection  of  the  French,  returned  to  the  capital. 
Ills  first  act  was  declaring  the  proceedings  of  the  provi- 
■ional  cortes  void.  In  November,  the  war  terminated. 
47* 


558  HI8T0BY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  III 

Forty-fiTe  thousand  French  soldiers  remained  in  Spain  until 
the  national  army  could  be  organized,  The  defeated  re- 
publicans were  imprisoned  and  executed  in  great  numbers. 
But  the  re-establishment  of  the  Inquisition  was  successfiilly 

resisted. 

As  the  king  was  suspected  of  being  favorable  to  the  con- 
stitutionalists, some  of  the  adherents  of  despotism  formed  a 
?lot  to  displace  him  and  raise  Don  Carlos  to  the  throne, 
'hese  were  called  Carlists.  They  caused  much  disturb- 
ance during  the  three  following  years ;  and,  with  the  fre- 
quent change  of  ministers  and  the  conduct  of  the  king,  were 
the  source  of  much  distress  among  the  people.  In  1825, 
Spain  lost  the  castle  of  St.  Jiiuii  Je  Ulloa,  and  early  in  the 
next  year,  Callao,  near  Lims*  -her  last  possession  on  the 
American  continent.  In  1829,  the  arnyr  in  Mexico  sur- 
rendered to  the  patriots,  under  general  Santa  Anna._  The 
same  year  was  signalized  by  the  birth  of  a  royal  princess, 
on  which  occasion  the  cortes  declared  the  crown  hereditary 
in  the  female  lines.  But  two  years  after,  while  Ferdinand 
was  suffering  from  a  violent  attack  of  sickness,  Calomarde, 
the  minister,  induced  the  weak  monarch  to  revoke  the 
decree,  and  transfer  the  right  of  succession  to  Don  Carlos. 
The  king  recovered  unexpectedly,  and  Calomarde  was  dis- 
missed. The  right  of  succession  was  restored  to  the  infanta 
Maria  Isabella,  and  her  mother  appointed  regent  of  the 
kingdom. 

Ferdinand  died  in  1833.     This  brought  on  civil  war, 
which  was  commenced  by  Don  Carlos,  who  claimed  the 
throne,  and  continued  with  variable  success,  until  1839. 
Through  the  energy  of  the    queen's    generalissimo,  Don 
Baldomera  Espartero,  it  resulted  in  her  favor.    In  the  mean 
time,  the  court  was  in  a  distracted  condition.     Ministers 
resigned  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  installed.  The  regency, 
he  Carlists,  and  the  queen's  adherents  struggled  for  the 
mastery.     The  constitution  of  1812  being  adopted  under  a 
modified  form  in  1837,  revived  the  old  constitutional  party, 
which  was  again  divided  by  the  secession  of  the  extreme 
liberals.     In  1840,  the  queen  regent  resigned,  and  her  office 
fell  upon  the  new  minister,  Espartero.     He  displayed  the 
same  energy  which  had  distinguished  him  on  the  battle- 
field.    Charges  of  cruelty  while  suppressing  the  insurrec- 
tionists were  soon  brought  against  him,  and  they  affected 
his  popularity.      Quarrels  with  the   cortes   and  the  new 
ministry  followed,  and  in  1843   he  was  driven  from  the 
country.     In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  young  queen 
attained  her  majority,  and  was  acknowledged  as  queen  of 


OHAP.  IX,  RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  559 

Spain  by  all  the  European  powers  under  the  title  of  Isar 
bella  II.  A  new  and  more  aristocratic  constitution  was 
adopted,  and  a  new  ministry  formed  under  general  Narvaez, 
the  great  opponent  of  Espartero.  Since  that  time,  Spain 
has  enjoyed  an  unusual  degree  of  tranquillity — only  broken 
by  an  occasional  quarrel  of  the  factions  that  continue  to 
exist,  the  intrigues  of  the  minister,  or  the  childish  squabbles 
of  Isabella  and  her  royal  consort. 

Portugal. 

Soon  after  arriving  In  his  kingdom  from  his  long  exile  in 
Brazil,  the  Portuguese  monarch  swore  to  maintain  the  new 
constitution.  By  this  were  secured  freedom  of  person  and 
of  property,  the  liberty  of  the  press,  legal  equality,  the 
abolition  of  privileges,  the  admission  of  all  citizens  to  any 
oflBce,  and  national  sovereignty.  Several  attempts  at  insur- 
rection were  suppressed,  and  in  1823,  the  different  depart- 
ments of  government  were  re-organized.  In  the  mean  time, 
Brazil  had  separated  from  the  parent  country;  and  the 
queen  and  several  of  the  nobility  formed  a  plot  to  over- 
throw the  government.  Dom  Miguel,  with  a  party  of 
nobles  and  officers,  declared  against  the  cortes,  and  general 
Sepulveda  attempted  to  carry  off  the  king.  The  army 
joined  the  malcontents,  and  the  king  was  compelled  to 
name  a  new  ministry  and  to  nullify  the  constitution  of 
1822.  The  king  was  then  requested  to  resume  absolute 
power,  the  promotion  of  which  was  declared  to  be  the 
object  of  the  counter-revolution.  He  refused,  and  propo- 
sals were  made  for  drafting  a  new  constitution,  but  they 
were  opposed  by  the  queen,  assisted  by  iJ'rcnch  influence. 
The  king  still  adhering  to  the  system  of  moderation  and 
liberalism,  the  queen  resolved  to  annihilate  it  at  a  single 
blow. 

On  the  30th  of  April,  1824,  Dom  Miguel  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  army,  and  declared  his  intention  to  com- 
plete what  he  had  begun  before.  On  the  same  day,  more 
than  a  hundred  ministers  and  officers  were  arrested,  and 
none  allowed  access  to  the  king.  The  foreign  ambassadors 
protested  against  this  violence,  but  Dom  Miguel  declared 
that  his  object  was  to  frustrate  a  conspiracy  which  aimed 
at  the  lives  of  the  king  and  queen.  The  king  ordered  the 
troops  to  retire,  and  the  release  of  the  imprisoned  persons. 
But  the  infant  issued  orders  on  his  own  authority,  and  the 
king  was  kept  in  a  condition  little  better  than  imprison- 
ment. The  lorcign  ambassadors  interfering,  John,  with  hit 
two  daughters,  and  the  diplomatic  corps,  waa  secretly  con- 


660  mSTOBT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PAUT  III 

Teyed  on  board  an  English  ship,  where  he  summoned  the 
infant  to  his  presence.  The  prince  obeyed,  confessed  that 
he  had  been  deceived,  and  was  pardoned.  Soon  after,  the 
king  returned  ashore  and  resumed  his  liberal  policy ;  but 
his  designs  were  baffled  by  Spanish  intrigue,  which  revived 
the  opposition  of  the  queen  and  the  bigoted  patriarch  of 
Lisbon.  Conspiracies  were  detected,  and  several  changes 
of  ministers  occurred. 

On  the  13th  of  November,  1825,  the  independence  of 
Brazil  was  acknowledged,  and  four  months  after,  the  king 
died.  In  April,  1826,  a  new  constitution  was  granted,  by 
which  the  cortes  was  divided  into  two  chambers.  In  May, 
Dom  Pedro  oflFered  the  throne  to  his  daughter.  Donna  Maria, 
on  condition  of  her  marrying  her  uncle  Miguel.  But,  by 
the  assistance  of  Spain,  a  party  had  already  been  formed 
to  overthrow  the  new  constitution  and  proclaim  Dom  Miguel 
king.  Aramante  and  the  marquis  of  Abrantes  headed 
the  insurgents,  while  a  Spanish  army  assembled  on  the 
frontier.  An  apneal  being  made  to  England,  15,000  British 
troops  were  landed  at  Lisbon,  and  in  a  short  time  the  in 
surrection  was  suppressed.  Next  year,  Dom  Miguel  was 
appointed  regent.  Ills  arrival  from  Vienna  in  1828  occar 
sioned  another  insurrection,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
place  him  on  the  throne.  At  the  same  time,  the  officers  of 
the  garrisons  favorable  to  the  liberal  policy  were  removed, 
and  an  arrangement  made  for  sending  Dom  Miguel  to  Villa 
Vicosa,  where  he  might  be  proclaimed  king  while  protected 
by  Aramante's  troops.  This  scheme  was  frustrated  by  the 
energy  of  Mr.  Lamb,  the  British  minister.  The  order  for 
the  departure  of  the  English  troops  was  counteracted,  and 
prevented  the  payment  of  the  loan  made  to  Dom  Miguel 
under  the  guarantee  of  the  British  government.  Subse- 
quently, when  the  troops  were  withdrawn,  the  prince  suc- 
ceeded in  crushing  the  constitutional  party.  Miguel  directed 
all  his  efforts  towards  consolidating  his  own  power,  and  the 
only  means  he  employed  was  cruelty.  The  prisons  were 
filled  with  his  late  opponents,  and  the  roads  were  crowded 
with  fugitives,  flying  from  home  and  their  country.  The 
cortes  declared  him  lawful  king  of  Portugal. 

In  1830,  the  number  of  prisoners  confined  for  political 
causes  had  swelled  to  40,000,  and  the  other  countries  of 
Europe  were  filled  with  Portuguese  refugees.  By  his  arbi- 
trary acts,  the  king  drew  upon  him  the  opposition  of  Great 
Britain,  which  sent  a  fleet  to  the  Tagus  in  1831,  which 
forced  from  him  some  humiliating  concessions.  Two  months 
after  a  French  fleet  appeared  in  that  river,  and  demanded 


Paul  i 


ThoBtM  Jefferson. 


OBAP.  IX  MSTOBATION  AND  lOtllS  PSILrPPB.  563 

redresB  for  injuries  committed  by  the  Portuguese  on  French 
subjects.  All  the  demands  of  the  French  were  submitted 
to.  Soon  after  an  insurrection  occurred,  which  was  only 
suppressed  with  bloodshed.  Meanwhile,  Dom  Pedro  was 
preparing  an  expedition  whose  object  was  the  expulsion  of 
nis  brother  and  the  promotion  of  his  own  daughter,  Donna 
Maria  da  Gloria,  to  the  throne. 

On  the  8th  of  July,  1832,  Dom  Pedro  landed  at  Oporto, 
and  seizing  that  city,  maintained  it  against  the  efforts  of 
the  opposite  faction.    In  July,  1833,  the  fleet  of  Dom  Miguel 
was  totally  defeated  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  by  Sir  Charles 
Napier,  and  in  the  same  month  his  army  was  routed  by  the 
count  da  Villaflor.     Lisbon  was  speedily  reduced,  and  Dom 
Pedro  assumed  the  government  in  the  name  of  his  daughter. 
The  Miguel  faction  was  still  in  arms,  and  its  forces  led  by 
general  JBourmont,  a  Frenchman.     This  leader  made  a  des- 
perate   attempt   to   carry  the   city  of  Oporto,  but  being 
repulsed,  his  forces  retired  to  two  strong  fortresses,  where 
they  would  have  protracted  the  war,  but  for  the  union  of  a 
Spanish  army  with  the  queen's  troops.     On  the  26th  of 
May,  1834,  Dom  Miguel  signed  a  capitulation,  by  virtue  of 
which  he  abandoned  Portugal.     The  cortes  re-established 
the  constitution  of  1826,  and  gave  their  sanction  to  his 
holding  the  regency.     When  order  was  in  some  degree 
restored,  Dom  Pedro  suddenly  died.     His  death  gave  rise  to 
dissensions  between  the  queen  and  her  faithful  ministers, 
in  consequence  of  which  marshal  Saldanha,  a  democratio 
leader,  became  prime  minister.     The  object  of  this  appoint- 
ment was  to  gain  favor  with  the  masses;  but  it  failed. 
Saldanha  lost  his  former   influence,  and  factions  became 
more  violent  than  ever.     In  March,  1835,  the  queen's  hus- 
band died.     In  April,  1836,  she  married  duke  Ferdinand 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Cohary,  who  was  disliked  both  by  the  cortes 
and  the  people,  and  now  troubles  were  the  consequence. 

Five  months  after  the  second  marriage  of  the  queen,  au 
insurrection  occurred,  which  was  joined  in  by  the  troops, 
and  the  queen  was  compelled  to  dismiss  her  ministers.  The 
constitution  of  1822  was  again  proclaimed.  Lisbon  was 
ruled  by  the  national  guard  and  the  clubs,  which  sup- 
pressed all  counter-revolutionary  efforts.  The  new  constitu 
tion  was  constructed  principally  upon  democratic  principles. 
Difficulties  occurred  with  England  and  Spain,  wnich  occa- 
sioned the  dissolution  of  the  ccrtes,  and  the  organization  of 
another,  which  speedily  came  to  terms  with  the  British 
government.  In  1841,  Russia.  Prussia,  Austria,  and  the 
pope  acknowledged  the  title  of  Donna  Maria,  which  cod 


ttlSTORt  0?  THB  WORLD.  PART  111 

tnbuted  to  give  stabiUty  to  her  throne.  Early  in  1842,  the 
friends  of  the  late  Dom  Pedro,  aided  by  the  troops  at  Lisbon, 
effected  an  overthrow  of  ministers,  and  restored  the  guardians 
of  the  queen,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  late  regent. 
These  were  the  duke  of  Ferceira  and  Costa  Cabral.  Under 
their  management,  a  new  treaty  was  concluded  with  Eng- 
land, the  public  expenditure  lessened,  additional  taxes 
imposed,  and  the  number  of  the  cortes  lessened.  Some  of 
these  measures  being  found  oppressive,  the  people  strove  to 
prevent  their  execution  by  plots  and  insurrections.  The 
most  formidable  of  these  occurred  at  Torres  Novas,  in 
February,  1844.  The  insurgents,  mostly  of  the  army, 
seized  the  fortress  of  Almeida.  This  was  besieged  by  the 
government  troops,  and  captured  after  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance. Civil  war  continued  to  distract  Portugal,  and  her 
government  is  still  in  the  hands  of  rulers  who  evince  a  total 
incapacity  for  the  duties  of  their  stations. 

Italy. 

Italy  enjoyed  a  degree  of  prosperity  under  Napoleon  un- 
known to  her  for  ages;  but  with  the  old  state  of  things, 
returned  misery  and  anarchy.  According  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  king  of  Sardinia  was 
reinstated,  and  received,  as  additional  territory,  the  duchy 
of  Geneva.  The  new  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  was 
given  to  Austria;  the  Po  was  constituted  the  boundary 
between  Parma  and  the  Popedom;  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
became  grand-duke  of  Tuscany;  Ferdinand  IV.  was  recog- 
nised as  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  minor  states  were 
principally  given  to  Austria.  Thus  Italy  was  little  more 
than  a  provmce  of  that  empire.  But  the  desire  of  liberty 
led  to  the  formation  of  various  clubs  and  secret  political 
societies,  of  which  the  principal  were  the  famous  Carbonari. 
Their  object  was  the  deliverance  of  Italy  from  foreign  rule, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  democratic  government  for  the 
whole  peninsula.  The  leaders  of  these  institutions  were 
men  of  talents,  influential  with  the  people,  and  controlling, 
in  a  great  degree,  the  popular  press.  From  the  year  1820 
till  the  expulsion  of  the  pope  in  1848,  these  men  devoted 
their  whole  efforts  to  the  accomplishment  of  their  object; 
their  exertions  producing  serious  riots  in  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
Piedmont. 

In  the  month  of  March,  1820,  more  than  600,000  mem- 
bers were  added  to  the  Carbonari.  In  the  next  year,  they 
attempted  to  revolutionize  Naples  and  Piedmont,  but  were 
suppressed  by  an  Austrian  army.    At  the  congress  of  Lay- 


A^^KaKDEB  I. 


OHAP.  IX.         RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHttrPPB.  567 

back  and  Verona,  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  resolved  upon 
an  armed  intervention  to  quell  the  revolutionary  spirit. 
Yet,  in  1825,  a  conspiracy  vras  detected  at  Rome,  having 
for  its  object  the  overthrow  of  Austrian  rule  and  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  consolidated  government.  Soon  afterw  ards, 
all  secret  societies  were  prohibited,  tribunals  supported  by 
columns  of  troops  were  appointed  to  punish  the  authors  of 
revolutions,  and  proscriptions,  banishments,  and  executions 
followed.  The  press,  schools,  and  universities  were  closely 
watched,  and  the  education  of  youth  confided  to  the  Jesuits. 
These  measures,  however,  did  not  prevent  occasional  out- 
breaks. 

Meanwhile,  some  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  Papal 
States.  In  1823,  pope  Pius  VII.  died.  He  was  succeeded 
by  cardinal  Annibal  deUa  Genga,  under  the  title  of  Leo  XII. 
He  died  in  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  cardinal  Castiglione, 
who  died  in  1830.  In  the  next  year,  Gregory  XVI.  became 
pope. 

The  French  revolution  of  1830  revived  the  spirit  of  in- 
surrection in  Italy.  The  Austrian  government  took  prompt 
and  vigorous  measures  to  crush  any  outbreaks  in  the  Lom- 
bardo- Venetian  kingdom,  and  the  other  parts  of  Italy  were 
easily  approached  by  the  troops  in  that  quarter.  The  out- 
breaks at  Bologna  and  Modena  were  speedily  quelled,  and 
were  followed  by  a  period  of  external  tranquillity.  When 
Ferdinand  I.  ascended  the  throne  of  Austria,  he  liberated 
the  imprisoned  Italians,  and  granted  an  amnesty  for  politi- 
cal offences ;  but  the  country  continued  in  a  disturbed  con- 
dition until  the  death  of  Gregory  XVI.,  in  1846.  _  He  was 
succeeded  by  Pius  IX.,  whose  accession  was  the  signal  for 
the  movement  of  many  of  the  elements  which  produced  the 
stormy  events  of  1848. 

Germany  and  Prussia. 

In  1815,  the  Germanic  League  was  formed  of  the  states 
composing  the  old  German  empire.  The  principal  objects 
of  this  confederacy  were  the  independence  of  the  constituent 
states ;  prevention  of  hostilities  between  one  state  and 
another;  the  security  of  each  state  from  civil  war;  the  es- 
tablishment of  representative  constitutions ;  legal  equality 
of  rcligiou«  sects;  the  exercise  of  a  common  civil  law,  by 
which  the  citizens  of  one  state  may  enjoy  civil  and  religious 
privileges  in  another.  These  states  were  too  loosely  held 
together,  either  to  be  formidable  in  war  or  tranquil  in 
peace.    From  1816  to  the  present  time,  Germany  has  been 


568  rasTORY  OF  the  woeld.  part  m 

suffering  from  internal  distractions,  and,  with  respect  to  the 
control  of  Europe,  politically  dead. 

The  political  history  of  Germany,  apart  from  its  most 
powerful  states,  Austria  and  Prussia,  has  been  of  little 
importance  since  1820.  Some  commotion  was  caused  in 
the  states  by  the  French  revolution  of  1830,  but  it  subsided 
when  it  was  ascertained  that  the  policy  of  Louis  Philippe 
was  favorable  to  peace.  In  1831,  the  diet  prohibited  all 
interference  of  the  subjects  with  the  affairs  of  the  govern- 
ment, either  by  petition  or  otherwise.  A  censorship  of  the 
press  was  also  recommended.     In  1834,  authors  of  liberal 

famphlets  were  forbidden  to  publish  their  productions.  In 
840,  the  people  united  with  the  government  in  preparing 
for  a  war  with  France,  in  consequence  of  the  hostile  attitude 
assumed  by  that  country  concerning  the  eastern  question; 
but  the  storm  passed  away,  and  Germany  fell  back  to  her 
former  inefficiency.  In  1840,  the  preaching  of  John  Ronge, 
a  Catholic  priest,  against  an  exhibition  of  the  so-called  Holy 
Coat  at  Treves,  excited  a  commotion  throughout  Germany, 
and  resulted  in  the  secession  of  large  numbers  from  the 
Catholic  communion,  and  their  subsequent  formation  of  a 
new  religious  body,  called  the  German  Catholic  church. 

The  NetTierlands. 

The  union  of  the  states  composing  the  Netherlands  did 
not  produce  tranquillity.  The  bitterness  of  feeling  engen- 
dered by  religious  differences  and  the  remembrance  of  the 
old  national  hatred  produced,  on  the  one  part,  stringent 
measures  of  government  against  the  French  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries who  had  been  the  cause  of  much  disturbance; 
and,  on  the  other,  an  excommunication  from  the  pope 
against  some  distinguished  ecclesiastics  who  had  sworn 
allegiance  to  the  king.  Amid  insurrections  and  disturb- 
ances of  various  kinds,  the  government  found  time  to  esta- 
blish pauper  colonies  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  to  build 
canals,  and  organize  agricultural  societies.  Troubles  oc- 
curred with  the  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  but  all  were 
Bettled  advantageously  for  the  Netherlands.  Trade  revived, 
and  a  joint-stock  company,  for  the  promotion  of  various 
branches  of  industry,  was  founded  by  the  king.  The  Nether- 
lands rendered  great  aid  to  Great  Britain  in  suppressing  the 
Blave  trade.  By  a  treaty  with  that  power,  in  1824,  the 
Netherlands  received  full 'possession  of  the  English  portion 
of  Sumatra  in  exchange  for  the  Dutch  territories  on  the 
main  land  of  India. 

In  1829,  religious  and  political  animosities  became  bo 


OfiAP.  EC.        RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  660 

violent,  that  government  resolved  to  change  its  policy  from 
concession  to  firm  resistance.  The  Belgian  petitions  for 
redress  were  thrown  aside,  and  laws  passed  against  the 
liberty  of  the  press.  Some  editors  were  arrested  and  tried 
for  treason;  and  being  found  guilty,  were  banished.  Amid 
the  uproar  caused  by  these  proceedings,  news  of  the  French 
revolution  arrived.  All  Brussels  took  arms  instantly.  The 
troops  fired  on  the  mob,  but  they  were  driven  back  and  the 
people  took  possession  of  the  arsenal.  On  the  27th  of 
August,  the  royal  arms  were  torn  dovm,  and  the  people 
chose  new  municipal  officers.  The  revolution  spread  through 
southern  Netherlands,  and  an  address  was  presented  to  the 
king,  asking  for  a  complete  change  in  the  administration 
The  king  refused,  and  sent  an  army  towards  Brussels,  undei 
command  of  his  sons,  prince  Frederick,  and  the  prince  of 
Orange.  The  latter  entered  Brussels  with  his  troops,  and 
after  consultation  with  the  deputations  from  the  city  and 
from  Liege,  became  satisfied  of  the  necessity  of  a  separation 
of  Holland  and  Belgium.  He  laid  the  matter  before  the 
king,  and  he  declared  his  determination  to  refer  all  to  the 
Btates-general.  The  people  again  took  to  arms;  so  that 
when  the  states-general  met  in  September,  they  had  to 
choose  between  anarchy  and  separation.  On  the  29th  of 
September,  thej  declared,  by  a  large  majority,  the  legisla- 
tive and  administrative  separation  of  Holland  and  Belgium. 
When  the  news  of  this  declaration  reached  Brussels,  another 
outbreak  ensued,  which  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  the 
people  and  the  choice  of  popular  officers. 

The  burghers,  appealing  for  aid  to  the  king,  prince 
Frederick,  after  issuing  a  proclamation,  advanced  upon  the 
city.  Every  preparation  was  made  for  resistance  by  the 
insurgents,  headed  by  the  political  clubs  and  factious 
Frenchmen.  The  battle  began  on  the  23d.  The  people 
fought  behind  their  barricades,  and  boiling  oil,  rockets, 
Btones,  and  every  variety  of  missile  were  used  against  the 
troops.  Part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes.  Women 
armed  themselves  and  fought  behind  the  barricades;  and, 
after  a  four  days'  struggle,  the  prince  was  driven  off,  with 
the  loss  of  4000  men.     After  the  victory  of  the  people,  the 

f»rovisional  government  declared  the  provinces  separated 
rom  Holland  should  form  an  independent  state.  Three 
parties  immediately  appeared ;  one  favorable  to  an  alliance 
with  France ;  one  desiring  a  regency  under  the  prince  of 
Orange;  and  another,  headed  by  De  Potter,  a  banished 
«ditor,  anxious  for  a  democracy,  with  the  Catholic  religion 
M  the  religion  of  the  state.  The  country  was  in  a  state  of 
48 


570  mSTOEY  OF  THE  WORLl).  tART  Ul 

anarchy,  brutal  violence  and  rapine  being  paramount  every, 
where.  Some  Belgian  troops  irritated  the  commandant  of 
the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  lieutenant-general  Chasse,  and  he 
bombarded  the  city  for  seven  hours,  with  the  most  destruc- 
tive effect. 

On  the  3d  of  February,  1831,  the  new  congress  elected 
the  duke  of  Nemours,  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  king  of  Bel- 
gium ;  but  the  French  monarch  declined  the  crown  for  his 
son.  A  regency  was  appointed,  and  the  government  went 
into  operation.  At  length  prince  Leopold  was  elected  king, 
and  war  with  Holland  ensued,  which,  but  for  the  interfe- 
rence of  France,  would  have  ended  in  the  total  conquest  of 
Belgium.  In  1832,  the  leading  powers  of  Europe  acknow- 
ledged the  independence  of  Belgium,  and  recommended  to 
the  king  of  Holland  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  But  Hol- 
land being  dissatisfied,  both  countries  prepared  for  war. 
France  and  England  agreed  in  convention,  that  Belgium 
should  surrender  Venloo,  and  HoUand  Antwerp,  by  the 
2d  of  November;  and  that  if  Holland  refused  to  comply, 
England  should  blockade  her  ports  while  a  French  army 
marched  against  Antwerp.  Both  events  occurred.  Marshal 
Gerard,  with  a  French  army,  gained  possession  of  Antwerp 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1832,  after  which  hostilities  were 
suspended.  But  it  was  not  tiU  1839,  that,  through  the 
mediation  of  the  five  great  powers,  Holland  acknowledged 
the  Belgic  nationality.  King  William  abdicated  the  throne 
of  Holland  the  next  year  in  favor  of  his  son,  William  II. 

Austria. 
The  influence  of  Austria  over  the  other  countries  of 
Europe  has  been  increasing  since  the  congress  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Her  domestic  policy  is  cruel  and  despotic.  In 
1819,  a  censorship  of  all  literary  institutions  was  established, 
with  a  law  intended  to  suppress  liberal  opinions,  liberal 
writings,  and  secret  societies.  In  the  same  year,  a  congress 
at  Vienna  adopted  a  constitution,  which  was  subsequently 
acknowledged  as  law  by  the  whole  Germanic  body.  Austria 
possessed  the  strongest  influence  in  the  congresses  of  Trap- 
pau,  Laybach,  and  Verona,  which  decided  the  political  affairs 
of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece.  In  all  these,  the  principles  of 
legitimacy  and  armed  interference  with  the  small  states 
were  established  as  rules  of  conduct  by  the  Holy  AUiance. 
Austria  was  opposed  to  the  recognition  of  Greek  indepen- 
dence, and  bore  a  full  share  in  exciting  the  troubles  in 
Portugal  arc^  Sp^.  She  acted  as  mediator  between  Russia 
iLd  Tuxi>-^^i  in  the  war  between  thuod  pvwers.     In  th* 


Napoleon  at  the  Kremlin. 


CHAP.  DL  KBSTOBATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  573 

mean  time,  every  means  were  adopted  to  banish  liberal 
opinions.      The  subjects  were  forbidden  to  speak  of  the 

tovernment,  even  in  praise.     Learning  and  education  were 
iscouraged. 

In  1820,  while  the  emperor  Francis  was  at  Laybach,  he 
said  he  wanted  no  learned  men,  but  good,  loyal  subjects. 
The  military  force  successfully  resisted  all  the  attempts  at 
revolt  consequent  upon  the  French  revolution  of  1830.     On 
the  2d  of  March,  1835,  Francis  II.  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ferdinand  I.     No  change  followed  in  the  Aus- 
trian policy.      In  November,   1846,  Austria  united  with 
Russia  and  Prussia  in  annihilating  the  nationality  of  Cra- 
cow, the  last  relic  of  the  old  Polish  kingdom.    The  territory 
around  Cracow  was  annexed  to  Austria.     This  event,  which 
produced  a  great  sensation  in  Europe,  increased  the  discon- 
tent and  spirit  of  insurrection  which  had  long  existed  in 
the  central  provinces,  particularly  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
When  Pius  IX.  ascended  the  papal  chair,  he  was  suspected 
of  favoring  liberal  opinions ;  and  Ferdinand  poured  his  best 
troops,  by  large  detachments,  into  Italy.     In  the  summer 
of  1847,  an  Austrian  army  seized  Ferrara.     Another  army 
appeared  on  the  borders  of  Sardinia,  and  all  the  northern 
provinces  were  in  like  manner  watched  and  occupied.    The 
plot  to  assassinate  the  pope  was  believed  to  be  the  result 
of  Austrian  intrigue.     The  commotions  in  Vienna  continu- 
ing, the  designs  of  Austria  upon  Italy  were  in  a  great 
degree  checked. 

Eussia. 

The  subsiding  of  the  violent  commotions  which  attended 
the  destruction  of  the  power  of  Napoleon  found  Russia  a 
power  of  the  greatest  influence.  After  the  peace  of  Vienna, 
Alexander  directed  his  attention  to  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  his  country  with  energy  and  success.  His 
military  power  was  a  source  of  terror  to  the  neighboring 
nations,  and  his  domestic  affairs  were  directed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  re-organize  the  various  branches  of  govern- 
ment and  society.  lie  died  December  Ist,  1825,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas.  As  the  elder  brother, 
Constantino  Caesarowitsch,  renounced  his  right  to  the  throne, 
a  revolt  occurred  in  the  army,  during  which  a  conspiracy 
of  the  old  Russian  nobility,  which  had  existed  for  years, 
was  detected.  The  disturbance  was  suppressed  and  several 
of  the  conspirators  executed.  The  next  year,  a  war  began 
with  Persia,  concerning  the  Persian  succession.  Russia 
prosecuted  it  with  vigor,  and  by  treaty,  in  ib27,  gained  a 


674  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  HI. 

large  accession  of  territory  and  the  payment  of  all  expenses. 
In  1828,  war  was  declared  against  Turkey,  caused  by  the 
relations  of  Russia  with  the  Greeks.  An  army  of  115,000 
men,  entering  Turkey,  took  possession  of  the  Upper  Danube. 
The  mountain  fortresses  of  Choumla  and  Varna,  where  the 
flower  of  the  sultan's  army  was  concentrated,  were  attacked, 
and  Choumla  taken,  after  a  two  months'  siege ;  but  an  early 
winter  and  the  prevalence  of  disease  exposed  the  Russians 
to  great  losses.  Another  division  of  troops  marched  through 
Caucasus  into  Asiatic  Turkey,  seized  several  strongholds, 
and  destroyed  a  flotilla  on  the  Black  Sea.  When  winter 
had  terminated  the  campaign,  various  attempts  to  settle 
the  difficulty  were  made  by  the  European  powers,  but  to  no 
effect.  In  the  middle  of  winter  hostilities  recommenced.  In 
Europe,  the  Turks  lost  several  fortresses  and  a  portion  of 
their  fleet.  In  Asia  the  contest  was  more  serious.  A  great 
deal  of  hard  fighting  took  place,  but  the  Turks  were  every- 
where defeated.  In  August,  1829,  the  great  city  of  Slivno 
was  taken.  A  week  later,  Adrianople  fell.  On  the  14th  of 
September,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed,  by  which  the 
boundaries  of  Turkey  were  adjusted,  and  an  indemnity 
made  to  Russia  for  all  expenses. 

This  war  was  soon  followed  by  the  revolution  in  Poland, 
which  crushed  the  hope  of  freedom  in  that  country.  Since 
the  peace  of  Adrianople,  Russia  has  taken  advantage  of 
every  opportunity  to  extend  her  influence  over  Turkey.  She 
has  made  repeated  attacks  upon  Persia.  The  war  waged 
with  the  brave  mountaineers  of  Caucasus  has  been  a  series 
of  defeats  and  humiliations  to  Russia  for  many  years.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  emperor  Nicholas  has  displayed  great 
zeal  for  internal  improvements  and  the  cause  of  education 
in  his  dominions. 

Sweden. 

The  union  of  Sweden  and  Norway  is  a  mere  political 
relation — the  habits,  feelings,  and  interests  of  the  people  of 
the  two  countries  being  rather  antagonistical.  Swedish 
society  presents  the  predominating  feature  of  aristocracy; 
Norwegian,  that  of  democracy.  Charles  XIV.  appeared  to 
be  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  reconciliation  of  differences, 
which,  under  a  less  enlightened  and  more  bigoted  monarch, 
would  have  produced  serious  results.  He  possessed  the 
confidence  of  the  army  and  a  majority  of  the  nation ;  and 
ho  pursued  a  policy  marked  with  moderation  and  wisdom. 
In  1823,  some  conspiracies  for  restoring  to  the  throne  the 
exiled  ,bouse  of  Wasa  were  detected,  and  their  design  frus 


NlCUOLAS   1. 


^ 


OHAP.  IX        BBSTOBATION  AND  LOUIS  PHIUPPE.  577 

trated  by  the  vigilance  of  the  publio  officers.  Their  repeti- 
tion was  prevented  by  an  amicable  arrangement  with  tha 
crown.  The  judicial  power  was  separated  from  the  execu- 
tive, and  various  reforms  were  made  with  regard  to  com- 
merce, agriculture,  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
Treaties  were  entered  into  with  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  which  served  to  strengthen  the  government. 
In  1824,  the  king  of  Norway  endeavored  to  prevail  upon 
the  storthing,  or  congress  of  the  nation,  to  give  him  an  abso- 
lute veto  and  the  appointment  of  the  president  of  the  stor- 
thing, to  create  a  hereditary  nobility,  and  other  acts.  The 
proposals  were  unanimously  rejected,  although  the  king 
was  personally  popular.  The  tumults  of  1830  did  not  dis- 
turb the  tranquillity  of  the  Scandinavian  empire.  Internal 
improvements  of  various  kinds  then  occupied  the  attention 
of  government,  and  several  important  canals  were  con- 
structed. In  1834,  the  proceedings  of  the  national  diet 
were  opened  to  the  public.  In  1840,  a  law  was  passed,  by 
which  the  diet  meets  every  three  years,  instead  of  every 
five.  Charles  XIV.  died  on  the  8th  of  March,  1844,  aged 
80  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Oscar  I.  Latterly 
the  history  of  Sweden  presents  nothing  of  importance,  save 
the  government's  protestation  against  the  incorporation  of 
the  territory  around  Cracow  with  the  dominions  of  Austria, 

Turkey. 

In  18i7,  Mahmoud  VI.  seized  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
which  had  partly  been  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of 
1812,  under  pretence  that  Russia  favored  the  rebellion  of 
the  Greeks.  The  moderation  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
joined  with  the  mediation  of  Austria  and  England,  served 
to  prevent  an  outbreak  immediately.  When  the  emperor 
Nicholas  succeeded  Alexander,  he  demanded  and  obtained 
satisfaction.  In  1826,  the  measures  pursued  by  the  sultan 
in  exterminating  the  janizaries  caused  an  insurrection  in 
Constantinople,  during  which  6000  houses  were  burned. 
Military  despotism  being  established,  Mahmoud  conducted 
himself  with  equal  ferocity  against  his  own  subjects  and 
the  rebel  Greeks.  At  the  same  period  he  re-organizod  his 
army  after  the  European  form,  and,  among  other  improve- 
ments, adopted  the  European  dress.  But  these  reforms 
rendered  him  so  unpopular  with  the  people  that  he  was 
obliged  to  suspend  them.  The  war  with  Russia  began  in 
182o,  and  il  ihe  close,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  Turkey 
surrendered  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  acknowledged  the 
49 


678  HISTORY  OP  THE  WORM).  PA»T  111 

independence  of  Greece,  and  lost  a  district  of  Asiatic 
Turkey. 

Mahmoud  then  resumed  his  projects  of  civil  and  military 
reform ;  but  they  caused  insurrections  which  required  two 
years  to  suppress.  Then  followed  the  war  f\-^  Mehemet 
Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt.  That  officer  had  refused  t  >  ;>;>y  tribute, 
in  virtue  of  the  assistance  he  had  given  the  sultan  during 
the  Turkish  war ;  and  when  irritated  by  the  high  tone  of 
the  Turkish  court,  he  sent  his  son,  Ibrahim  pasha,  with  an 
army  into  Syria.  Ibrahim  reduced  Acre,  routed  25,000 
Turks,  and  then  advanced  against  their  main  body.  In 
December,  1832,  the  army  of  the  sultan  was  totally  defeated 
at  Konieh ;  and  though  Russia  assisted  Turkey  by  a 
squadron  and  a  military  force,  Mahmoud  was  compelled  to 
surrender  Syria  to  the  pasha.  In  1839,  hostilities  were 
renewed,  and  in  June  the  Turks  were  routed  at  Nezib,  near 
Aleppo.  Mahmoud  died  before  the  news  reached  him. 
Ho  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Abdul  Medgid,  a  youth 
of  sixteen.  Two  weeks  after,  the  Turkish  fleet,  under  the 
capudan  pasha,  went  over  to  the  enemy.  On  the  15th  of 
July,  1840,  the  war  terminated.  By  a  treaty  concluded  at 
London,  between  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Aus- 
tria, Syria  was  restored  to  Turkey,  and  Mehemet  Ali  obliged 
to  content  himself  with  Egypt. 

After  the  settlement  of  this  difficulty,  the  sultan  directed 
his  attention  to  the  introduction  of  European  customs;  but 
his  designs  were  everywhere  opposed,  and  the  people  were 
excited  to  hatred  and  the  more  active  to  sedition.  For  five 
years,  some  of  the  provinces  were  in  revolt;  and  the  utmost 
exertions  of  the  sultan  to  restore  order  and  re-organize  the 
social  and  political  systems  only  produced  mortifying  re- 
sults. In  1846,  war  occurred  with  Greece,  and  it  was  con- 
ducted with  aU  the  barbarity  and  devastation  usual  with 
the  Turks  and  the  Greeks. 

Greece. 

The  revolution  by  which  the  Greeks  threw  off  the  Turkish 
yoke  was  the  first  great  event  in  that  country  after  the 
congress  of  Vienna.  The  first  attempt  at  rebellion  waa 
made  in  1821 ;  but  not  receiving  the  expected  aid  from 
Russia,  the  Greeks  were  suppressed.  Then  the  patriots 
and  their  wives  and  children  were  treated  with  the  greatest 
degree  of  cruelty.  S  jon  after,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Morea 
revolted,  and  some  skirmishes  ensued,  followed  by  massacre 
and  devastation.  Ir.  Cyprus,  where  no  insurrection  had 
taken  place,  the  Turks  murdered  most  of  the  inhabitants 


Al  EXANDER   II. 


1#:-K 


CHAP.  IX.  EESTOBATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPE.  681 

and  burned  sixty-two  villages.  Like  outrages  were  com- 
mitted at  Rhodes,  Pergamos,  and  Smyrna.  The  Greek  fleet 
blockaded  all  the  ports  of  the  iEgean  Sea.  A  Greek  force 
took  Tripolissa  by  storm,  and  massacred  8000  Turks.  The 
Turks  desolated  the  peninsula  of  Cassandra  and  slaughtered 
3000  persons. 

In  January,  1822,  deputies  from  various  parts  of  Greece 
formed  themselves  into  a  provisional  government  and  pro- 
ilaimed  a  constitution.  A  Turkish  fleet  and  army  appeared 
before  Scio,  and  after  wasting  the  island  and  massacring 
thousands,  sold  41,000  of  the  people  as  slaves.  Forty 
Greeks,  devoting  themselves  to  death,  fired  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  fleet,  and  more  than  2000  men  perished.  In  Cara- 
Veria,  5000  Christian  families  were  slaughtered.  Skirmish- 
ing of  a  severe  character  was  carried  on  in  the  Morea, 
until  August,  1823,  when  the  Greeks  united  their  forces 
and  routed  20,000  Turks,  with  great  slaughter,  near  Napoli. 
Numbers  of  the  Turkish  vessels  were  destroyed  by  tempests 
and  the  Greek  fire.  The  sultan  resolved  on  a  war  of  ex- 
termination. He  sent  a  second  army  into  Greece;  but  part 
of  it  was  defeated  at  Thermopylae,  by  the  Greek  Ulyssus, 
and  soon  after  another  detachment  was  routed  at  Cheronea 
by  the  same  leader.  On  the  20th  of  August,  Marco  Boz- 
zaris  defeated  20,000  Turks  at  Agrapha,  m  a  night  attack. 
The  victory  cost  the  Greeks  the  death  of  Bozzaris.  The 
Turks  attacked  Ipsara;  but  after  an  obstinate  and  bloody 
contest,  they  were  driven  off. 

On  the  main  land,  the  Greeks  were  equally  successful. 
The  third  siege  of  Missolonghi,  which  lasted  from  April  till 
October  of  the  year  1825,  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Turks,  with  the  loss  of  9000  men.  A  fourth  attack  was 
attended  with  the  same  result.  But  it  was  taken  finally, 
in  1826.  The  sufferings  of  the  Greeks  on  this  occasion 
awakened  the  sympathy  of  Europe.  The  three  great  powers 
united  in  their  favor,  and  societies  were  everywhere  formed 
for  their  relief.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Egyptian  allies  of 
the  sultan  overran  the  Morea,  and  the  Greeks  were  reduced 
to  extremity.  The  sultan  rejecting  the  mediation  of  the 
three  great  powers,  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleet  of  one 
hundred  and  ten  vessels  was  annihilated,  in  the  bay  of 
Navarino,  by  an  English,  French,  and  Russian  fleet.  In 
1828,  a  body  of  French  troops  entered  Greece,  and,  through 
the  influence  of  France  and  England,  the  Egyptian  pasha 
withdrew  his  troops  from  the  Morea.  In  the  next  year,  the 
sultan  signed  the  articles  submitted  to  him  by  the  three 
great  powers,  acknowledging  the  independence  of  Greece. 
49* 


482  mSTORT  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  HL 

Some  Bkirmislimg  occurred  after  this,  but  the  independence 
of  Greece  was  secured  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  in  Sep- 
tember. 

Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  chosen  by  the  allied 
powers  to  be  the  king  of  Greece.  But  he  declined  accept- 
ing it,  and  Otho  of  Bavaria  became  the  king.  The  country 
was  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  which  continued  until  1843, 
when  the  king  was  compelled  to  call  a  national  assembly 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  new  constitution.  This  con- 
stitution, which  is  monarchical,  was  completed  in  1844. 

The  intrigues  of  European  powers  and  the  quarrels  of 
factions  have  prevented  the  realization  of  the  hopes  the 
friends  of  Greece  conceived  in  1829. 

The  United  States  of  America. 
James  Monroe,  the  fifth  president  of  the  United  States, 
was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1821.  In  1824,  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  Russia,  by  which  that  power  abandoned 
that  part  of  Oregon  south  of  54°  40^.  In  the  same  year,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  with  England,  for  the  suppression  of 
the  slave  trade.  In  1825,  Lafayette  visited  the  land  whose 
independence  he  had  helped  to  establish,  and  was  every- 
where received  with  demonstrations  of  respect  and  grati- 
tude. The  sixth  president  of  the  Union  was  John  Quincy 
Adams,  under  whose  administration  several  treaties  were 
concluded  with  the  Indian  tribes,  by  which  portions  of 
Georgia,  Arkansas,  and  Missouri  were  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  Other  treaties  were  concluded  with  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  Denmark,  and  Central  America.  On  the  4th  of 
July,  1826,  two  ex-presidents,  Jefferson  and  Adams,  died. 
In  1828,  the  passage  of  a  new  tariff  bill  caused  violent  com- 
motions in  the  Southern  States ;  and  in  the  same  year, 
general  Andrew  Jackson  was  elected  president  by  a  large 
majority.  The  tariff  question  continued  to  be  agitated,  and 
during  the  sessions  of  congress  from  1829  till  1832,  it  formed 
the  principal  subject.  In  1832,  a  new  bill  was  passed, 
lowering  the  rate  of  duties  considerably.  But  the  South 
were  dissatisfied,  and  demanded  its  repeal.  A  convention 
was  held  in  South  Carolina,  which  declared  both  tariff  acts 
null  and  void,  and  declared,  that  if  the  national  government 
endeavored  to  enforce  them,  the  Union  would  be  dissolved. 
The  advocates  of  these  measures  were  called  NuUifiers.  The 
president  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  his  intention  to 
maintain  the  integrity  of  the  Union.  Civil  war  seemed  in 
evitable,  when  Henry  Clay  proposed  his  Compromise  Aol, 
which  met  with  the  support  rf  the  Southern  members. 


Maria  Alexandhovna,  Empress  of  Russia. 


John  Quincy  Adams. 


OBAP.  IX.         RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPB,  585 

This  danger  was  scarcely  averted,  when  a  new  source  of 
contention  arose  from  the  president's  vetoing  a  bill  for  the 
re-charter  of  the  United  States  Bank.  This  virtually  abo- 
lished the  institution,  which  produced  derangement  and 
distress  throughout  the  mercantile  world.  The  large  cities 
were  opposed  to  the  measures  of  the  president;  and  petitions 
from  the  great  trading  and  moneyed  interests,  praying  for 
a  restoration  of  the  charter  of  the  bank,  poured  into  con- 

fress.  The  president  maintained  his  opposition  to  the 
ank,  and  wound  up  its  concerns.  The  warlike  attitude  of 
the  president  towards  France  was  modified  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  congress,  and  the  difficulty  was  adjusted,  through 
the  mediation  of  Great  Britain.  An  outrage  of  some  wiiites, 
in  Florida,  caused  the  Seminole  war — a  protracted  aAd  un- 
satisfactory contest.  The  abolition  of  the  national  bank 
caused  the  chartering  of  a  vast  number  of  state  banks, 
which  produced  a  great  deal  of  wild  speculation  and  a 
paper  currency  of  enormous  amount. 

Amid  social  and  political  troubles,  general  Jj  "kson's 
second  term  of  office  expired.  The  next  president,  Alartin 
Van  Buren,  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  Jacksoi  policy. 
The  Seminole  war  continued,  attended  with  all  the  horrors 
of  Indian  warfare.  The  everglades  of  Florida  affoi  led  the 
Indians  a  secure  refuge.  Another  Indian  war,  with  Black 
Hawk  and  his  followers,  in  the  west,  was  ended  in  1832, 
by  the  capture  of  that  chief.  In  tho  same  year,  the  cholera 
visited  the  country.  The  government  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  Texas,  and  a  number  of  volunteero  joined 
the  Texan  troops  opposed  to  the  army  of  Mexico.  At  the 
battle  of  San  Jacinto,  the  Mexicans  were  defeated  a*  d  Santa 
Anna,  the  Mexican  president,  was  captured  and  c(  nducted 
to  Washington,  where  he  signed  a  treaty  ackno^/ledging 
Texan  independence.  The  year  of  president  Van  Buren's 
inauguration  saw  the  bursting  of  the  storm  which  iiad  been 
pending  over  every  department  of  industry  since  tlie  aboli- 
tion of  the  national  bank.  Almost  all  the  banks  in  the 
country  either  broke  or  suspended  specie  payments.  Busi- 
ness of  every  kind  was  brought  to  a  stand,  and  mechanics 
and  laborers  were  reduced  to  extreme  distress.  The  Florida 
war  was  continued,  and  Osceola,  the  most  prominent  Semi- 
nole leader,  captured.  Petitions  for  the  convening  of  at. 
extra  session  of  congress  were  laid  before  the  president,  but 
were  disregarded. 

At  the  regular  session,  in  December,  little  was  done  with 
the  object  of  relieving  the  general  distress,  the  attention  of 
congress  being  directed  to  affairs  on  the  Canada  border 


588  msTORT  OF  the  world.  3p*  <t  m 

Canada  had  revolted,  and  parties  of  Americans  crossed  the 
boundary  to  assist  the  insurgents.  A  special  message  was 
issued  by  the  president,  forbidding  the  citizens  to  cross  the 
boundary  -with  the  object  of  assisting  the  Canadians,  and 
general  Scott,  with  some  New  York  troops,  was  ordered  to 
the  border.  On  the  night  of  the  28th  of  December,  a  party 
of  British  militia  burned  the  steamboat  Caroline,  and  sent 
it  over  Niagara.  An  angry  correspondence  with  the  British 
minister  was  the  consequence  of  this  affair,  but  nothing 
serious  occurred.  In  1838  the  banks  resumed  spepie  pay- 
ments. Another  difficulty  occurred  with  Great  Britain,  on 
the  Maine  boundary  question,  during  which  war  was  anti- 
cipated by  both  countries. 

In  1839,  the  banks  again  suspended.  Next  year,  general 
Harrison  was  elected  to  the  presidency  by  a  large  majority. 
A  complete  change  of  policy  was  the  consequence.  A  spe- 
cial session  of  congress  was  called  to  meet  in  May,  and  it 
was  expected  the  cardinal  principles  of  the  Whig  party 
would  be  carried  out.  General  Harrison  died  in  one  month 
after  his  inauguration,  and  was  succeeded  by  vice-president 
Tyler.  In  May,  congress  met.  Its  first  great  measure,  the 
bill  for  the  establishment  of  the  United  States  Bank,  was 
vetoed  by  president  Tyler.  A  second  bill  met  the  same 
treatment,  and  the  consequence  was,  the  resignation  of  the 
cabinet,  vnth  the  exception  of  Mr.  Webster.  A  new  tariff 
bill  was  passed,  and  its  effect  was  soon  seen  in  the  revival 
of  trade  and  business.  In  1842,  the  Maine  boundary  ques- 
tion was  settled  by  Mr.  Webster  and  lord  Ashburton. 

In  1844,  James  K.  Polk  was  elected  to  the  presidency  by 
the  Democratic  party.  Next  year,  Florida  and  Iowa  were 
admitted  into  the  Union,  and  the  treaty  by  which  Texas 
was  annexed  became  a  law.  In  1846,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded with  Great  Britain,  by  which  the  parallel  of  49°  was 
recognised  as  the  boundary  of  the  territory  of  Oregon. 
Congress  passed  bills  reducing  the  tariff,  establishing^  the 
warehouse  system,  and  the  sub-treasury.  In  the  mean  time, 
Mexico  protested  against  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  her 
minister  declared  it  a  cause  of  war.  The  president  ordered 
colonel  Taylor  into  Texas,  with  a  corps  of  observation.  In 
March,  1846.  orders  were  given  him  to  take  a  position  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  the  disputed  boundary  line  between  Mexico 
and  Texas.  Colonel  Taylor  built  Fort  Brown,  opposite 
Matamoras,  against  which  the  Mexicans  protested.  The 
Mexican  army  finally  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  attacked 
the  email  American  force,  on  the  road  leading  from  Fort 
Brown.    They  were  defeated  in  the  two  battles  of  the  8th 


BATTLE  OP  BUENA  VJSTA. 


OHAP.  IX.  RESTORATION  AND  LOUIS  PUILIPPB.  589 

and  9th  of  May,  and  driven  across  the  river,  with  much 
slaughter.  At  the  same  time,  Fort  Brown  was  bombarded, 
but  made  a  successful  resistance.  Matamoras  was  taken 
on  the  18th,  and  then  war  was  declared  against  Mexico  h 
the  United  States.  Colonel  Taylor  was  raised  to  the  ran' 
of  major-general,  and  received  a  large  reinforcement  of 
troops.  During  the  summer,  Mier,  Rcynoso,  and  Camargc 
were  taken,  and  on  the  19th  of  September,  the  American 
array,  numbering  7000  strong,  appeared  before  Monterey. 
This  strong  forti-ess  and  city  was  defended  by  12,000  men, 
under  general  Ampudia.  After  a  four  days'  battle,  the  city 
capitulated.  Saltillo,  Parras,  and  Victoria  were  next  taken, 
and  on  the  22d  of  February,  general  Taylor,  with  about 
5000  men,  encamped  at  the  strong  mountain  pass  of  Angos- 
tura, near  Buena  Vista.  Here  he  was  attacked  by  general 
Santa  Anna,  with  20,000  men.  The  battle  began  early  on 
the  23d.  The  Americans  relied  principally  on  their  artillery, 
which  did  great  execution  among  the  Mexican  cavalry.  The 
nature  of  the  ground  prevented  the  cavalry  from  acting  pro- 
perly. The  battle  was  obstinately  contested,  and  at  night 
both  armies  occupied  the  same  ground  they  did  when  the 
battle  began.  During  the  night,  Santa  Anna  retreated,  hia 
army  being  in  a  starving  condition.  His  loss  was  2000 
men;  general  Taylor's,  about  700.  From  want  of  military 
stores,  general  Taylor  retired  to  Monterey,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  close  of  the  war. 

In  the  mean  time,  general  Kearny,  and  colonels  Fremont, 
Price,  and  Doniphan  conducted  expeditions  against  New 
Mexico  and  California.  Several  battles  were  fought,  and 
the  principal  towns  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  American 
troops.  Colonel  Doniphan's  marcn  through  the  enemy's 
country,  with  but  900  men,  displayed  great  military  resolu- 
tion and  perseverance.  During  the  march,  he  encountered 
and  defeated  4000  men,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento, 
(February  28th,  1847.) 

In  March,  1847,  general  Scott,  commander-io-chief  of  the 
American  army,  landed  near  Vera  Cruz,  with  11,1)00  men. 
Batteries  were  opened  upon  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz  and  the 
castle  of  St.  Juan  de  Ulloa,  and,  on  the  27th  of  March,  both 
surrendered.  Soon  after,  Alvarado  and  Zacotalpam  wore 
captured.  Early  in  the  next  month,  general  Scott  marched 
'or  the  Mexican  capital.  On  the  17th  he  reached  the  moun- 
tain pass  of  Cerro  Gordo,  where  Santa  Anna  was  posted, 
with  11,000  men.  Next  day,  the  Americans,  numbering 
7000,  stormed  the  works  and  routed  the  Mexicans.  They 
pressed  forward,  and  Jalapa,  Peroto,  and  Puebla  were  cap 
60 


590  -  raSTORT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PAET  m, 

tured  without  resistance.  Six  thousand  prisoners  and  ft 
great  quantity  of  military  stores  were  taken.  On  the  18th 
of  August,  the  Americans  reached  San  Augustin,  near  the 
city  of  Mexico.  On  the  19th  and  20th,  Contreras,  San  An- 
tonia,  and  Churubusco  were  taken — the  latter  after  an  ob 
stinate  struggle.  In  these  battles,  15,000  Mexicans  were 
posted  in  almost  impregnable  positions,  while  the  attackiiig 
force  numbered  altogether  but  7000  men.  An  armistice 
was  concluded,  which  lasted  till  the  6th  of  September.  On 
the  8th,  general  Worth  stormed  the  works  of  Molino  del 
Key,  and  carried  them,  but  with  a  heavy  loss.  On  the  12th, 
the  batteries  opened  upon  Chapultepec,  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  Mexico.  Next  day,  it  was  carried  by  storm. 
At  the  same  time  the  assault  on  the  city  commenced.  Gene- 
ral Twiggs  bombarded  the  southern  walls,  general  Worth 
swept  the  works  on  the  San  Cosme  road,  and  general 
Quitman  those  on  the  Tacubaya.  Night  found  both  columns 
in  the  city,  and  before  morning  Santa  Anna,  with  his 
remnant  of  an  army,  fled.  On  the  14th,  the  Americans 
entered  Mexico  in  triumph.  This,  however,  did  not  close 
the  war.  On  the  25  th  of  September,  Santa  Anna  appeared 
before  Puebla,  and  bombarded  it  until  the  1st  of  October, 
when  he  retreated.  On  the  9th,  general  Lane  won  the 
battle  of  Huamantla,  and  soon  after  captured  Atlixco. 
These  were  the  last  important  events  of  the  war. 

Mexico  and  Central  Amonca. 

From  the  year  1813  till  1821,  various  Mexican  chiefs 
struggled  for  the  independence  of  their  country.  In  the 
last  mentioned  year,  Iturbide  and  other  chiefs  united  against 
the  Spanish  army.  Next  year,  Iturbide  assumed  the  title 
of  emperor  Augustin  I.  After  a  reign  of  ten  months,  he 
was  driven  from  the  country,  and  a  federal  republic  esta- 
blished. Vittoria  became  president,  but  party  spirit  pre- 
vented the  restoration  of  peace.  In  1828,  the  two  factions 
came  to  open  war,  each  advocating  the  claims  of  a  candidate 
to  the  presidency,  and  in  the  end  appealing  to  the  sword. 
Spain  attempted  to  regain  her  authority,  but  was  frustrated 
by  general  Santa  Anna.  A  civil  war  followed,  during  which 
Gmerrero  was  deposed  and  general  Bustamente  elected  vice- 
president  by  the  army.  Under  his  rule,  order  was,  in  some 
measure,  restored,  and  business  revived.  In  1831,  president 
Pedrazza  returned  from  France.  Bustamente  ordered  him 
to  leave  the  country.  Santa  Anna  revolted  in  Vera  Cnw, 
and  another  revolt  occurred  at  Tampico.  Santa  Anna  be* 
eame  president  in  1833.    In  the  next  year,  congress  abo 


(SUP.  n.        BESTOBATION  AND  LOUIS  PHILIPPX.  591 

lished  conyents  and  abrogated  the  authority  of  the  pope. 
ITiis  caused  insurrections  so  serious  that  congress  adjourned, 
and  the  power  of  Santa  Anna  increased.  Several  of  the 
states  declared  themselves  independent,  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Texas,  they  were  soon  reduced.  The  army  under 
Santa  Anna  was  routed  at  San  Jacinto,  in  April,  1836,  and 
the  independence  of  Texas  was  virtually  secured.  General 
Bustamente  regained  power,  and  by  his  miserable  policy, 
involved  the  country  in  a  war  with  France.  In  November, 
1838,  a  French  squadron  reduced  St.  Juan  de  Ulloa.  Santa 
Anna  displayed  some  energy  in  defending  Vera  Cruz;  but 
through  the  mediation  of  the  British  minister,  the  dispute 
was  soon  settled.  At  the  expiration  of  Bustamente's  term, 
he  was  succeeded  by  Santa  Anna.  Since  that  time,  vrith 
the  exception  of  the  period  of  the  war  with  the  United 
States,  civil  broils  have  occupied  the  history  of  Mexico. 

Central  America,  once  Guatemala,  declared  itself  inde- 
pendent of  Spain  in  1821.  It  was  united  to  Mexico,  under 
Iturbide,  but  when  he  fell,  it  became  a  separate  government. 
On  the  22d  of  November,  1824,  the  constituent  congress 
completed  the  organization  of  the  government,  adopting  a 
constitution  similar  to  that  of  the  United  States.  Arce  was 
elected  first  president.  The  quarrels  of  factions,  civil  war, 
and  social  misery  of  every  kind,  marked  the  period  of  his 
administration.  The  people  of  St.  Salvador  marched  against 
those  of  Guatemala,  but  were  defeated  by  Arce,  who  per- 
petrated the  greatest  outrages.  In  1829,  general  Morazon, 
of  St.  Salvador,  captured  the  city  of  Guatemala,  which  se- 
cured his  election  to  the  presidency.  He  endeavored  to 
restore  order,  and  develope  the  domestic  resources  of  the 
country.  In  1838,  an  insurrection  occurred,  under  Carrcra, 
a  half-Indian.  To  political  animosities  he  added  the  hatred 
of  one  race  to  anotner.  In  1842,  Morazon  was  taken  and 
shot;  and  since  his  death  the  country  has  been  torn  by 
civil  dissensions.  The  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  produced  no  disturbance  in  Central  America.  It  is 
thought  that  foreign  industry  will  yet  develope  the  resources 
of  the  country,  and  make  it  a  great  commercial  mart. 

South  America. 
The  republic  of  Colombia  comprises  throe  provinces — 
Venezuela,  Quito,  and  New  Grenada.  The  first  general 
congress  met  in  March,  1821,  and  decided  upon  the  adop- 
tion of  a  representative  constitution.  In  June,  the  Spanish 
army  was  totally  routed  at  Carabobo.  Next  year,  Bolivar 
took  Panama,  and  defeated  Murgeon,  at  Curiaco.     A  month 


192  mSTOET  07  THE  WOBLD.  PA&l  Hi. 

afterwards,  Sucre  gained  the  battle  of  Pichincha,  after 
which  the  Spanish  authorities  surrendered.  In  1824,  Boli- 
var marched  to  assist  the  patriots  of  Peru,  and  in  his  ab- 
Bence,  the  government  was  administered  by  Santander. 
The  country  was  rapidly  advancing  in  prosperity,  when 
the  revolt  of  Paez  occurred.  That  officer  kept  all  the 
northern  provinces  in  turmoil  until  the  return  of  Bolivar, 
in  1827.  In  March,  1828,  a  convention  for  redressing 
grievances  was  summoned  to  meet  at  Ocana;  but  it  did 
nothing.  Bolivar  then  assumed  the  supreme  authority, 
abolished  the  constitution,  and  appointed  a  series  of  officers. 
The  republican  party  were  aroused,  and  attempts  were 
made  to  assassinate  Bolivar,  but  they  failed,  and  the  con- 
spirators were  executed.  Bolivar  endeavored  to  make  him- 
self perpetual  president  of  Peru,  which  brought  on  a  war 
with  that  country.  Through  the  influence  of  Paez,  Venu- 
jBuela  declared  herself  independent,  an  event  which  caused 
the  resignation  of  Bolivar,  after  he  had  formally  denied  all 
intention  of  aiming  at  the  kingly  dignity.  In  the  same 
year,  Quito  declared  her  independence,  and  the  remainder 
of  Colombia  was  formed  into  the  republic  of  New  Grenada. 
The  three  states  soon  after  entered  into  friendly  relations 
with  each  other,  with  regard  to  trade  and  national  policy. 
But,  like  most  of  the  states  of  South  America,  their  later 
history  is  made  up  of  petty  quarrels,  unworthy  of  a  record. 
Peru  declared  itself  independent  in  1821.  General  San 
Martin  was  appointed  dictator,  and  in  1822,  a  congress  met 
at  Lima.  This  body  adopted  a  constitution,  which,  from 
its  monarchical  character,  gave  great  dissatisfaction.  In 
1823,  La  Serna,  the  Spanish  commander,  defeated  the  re- 

Eublicans,  but  was  prevented  from  improving  his  victory 
y  dissensions  in  his  army.  Peru  was  then  assisted  by 
Colombia,  which  sent  Bolivar  and  Sucre  to  their  aid.  The 
Peruvians  were  divided  into  factions,  and  the  weakness  of 
the  enemy  alone  saved  the  country.  Bolivar  became  dic- 
tator. In  December,  1824,  Sucre  gained  the  great  battle 
of  Ayacucho,  which  secured  the  independence  of  Peru. 
Bolivar  tried  to  impose  a  monarchical  constitution  on  the 
country,  but  his  design  was  opposed,  and  he  afterwards 
instigated  the  war  against  Colombia.  Peace  was  concluded 
in  1829,  after  the  Peruvians  had  experienced  several  defeats. 
Gamarra  became  president,  but  his  intrigues  with  the  presi 
dent  of  Bolivia  led  to  his  overthrow,  in  1836.  Santa  Cru» 
seized  the  government,  but  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  in 
consequence  of  a  war  with  Chili.  War  was  declared  agains* 
Bolivia,  and  it  continued  until  1842,  when,  throu|{h  tb« 


PRINCE    METTERNICa 


CHAP.  IX         E         KATIOS  AOT)  LOUIS  PHILIPPH.  595 

mediation  of  Chili,  peace  was  restored.    Since  that  time  the 
country  has  been  a  prey  to  faction  and  domestic  misrule. 

After  the  failure  of  the  attempt  of  Bolivar  to  impose  a 
constitution  upon  the  people  of  Bolivia,  that  country  re- 
mained in  a  very  unsettled  condition  until  1829,  when  the 
elevation  of  Santa  Cruz  to  the  chief  magistracy  restored 
order.  During  two  years,  prosperity  attended  his  policy ; 
but,  thirsting  for  power,  he  involved  the  country  in  a  war 
with  Peru.  He  conquered  that  republic,  and  endeavored 
to  unite  it  with  Bolivia;  but  the  interference  of  Chili  caused 
his  overthrow.  Since  the  last  war  with  Peru,  which  termi- 
nated in  1842,  the  country  has  been  very  unsettled. 

Brazil  remained  a  monarchy  until  1820,  when  it  obtained 
a  constitution  similar  to  the  one  adopted  at  that  time  in 
Portugal.      The  example  of  surrounding  countries   soon 
roused  a  republican  spirit  among  the  people.    Serious  riots 
broke  out  at  Rio  Janeiro.     In  May,  1822,  the  prince-regent 
assumed  the  title  of  perpetual  defender  of  Brazil,  and  con- 
vened a  national  assembly  to  frame  a  constitution.     This 
was  pronounced  null  and  void  by  the  cortes  of  Portugal, 
and  the  prince-regent  ordered  home.     The  assembly  then 
declared  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  and  Dom 
Pedro  was  named  constitutional  emperor,  in  October,  1822. 
The  first  acts  of  Dom  Pedro  were  well  calculated  to  aug- 
ment the  difficulties    he   met  with  on  his  ascending  the 
throne.    The  republicans  were  gaining  ground.    Dom  Pedro 
forbade  secret  societies,  and  the  suspected  republicans  were 
thrown   into  prison.      In  November,  1823,  the  assembly 
was  driven  from  its  hall  by  armed  force.     In  1824,  a  new 
constitution  was  framed,  upon  principles  of  hereditary  and 
constitutional  monarchy.     The  emperor  and  the  assembly 
mutually  restricted  each  other's  powers.    The  press  was 
free,  and  other  religions,  besides  the  Catholic,  were  tole- 
rated.     Pernambuco  opposed   this   constitution,  but  was 
taken  by  assault,  after  an  obstinate  resistance.    In  Novem- 
ber, 1825,    Portugal   acknowledged   the   independence  of 
Brazil,  and  the  example  was  followed  by  other  European 
powers.     A  short  war  with  La  Plata  followed,  concerning 
the  Banda  Orienta,  and  it  resulted  in  the  independence  of 
that  province.      Disputes  between    the  emperor  and  the 
assembly  were  frequent,  and  they  increased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, that,  in  April,  1831,  the  emperor  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  then  only  nine  years  oU.     The 
prince  maintained  his  authority  until  his  death,  within  a 
few  years,  amid  the  quarrels  of  parties,  which  kapt  society 
in  a  state  of  anarchy. 


196  HISTOBT  OP  THB  WORLD.  PART  IH 

In  1819,  the  provinces  of  La  Plata  adopted  a  constitution 
modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  The  country, 
however,  continued  unsettled  until  Maj ,  1822,  when  a  con- 

f;res8  met,  and  by  a  series  of  acts  restored  public  tranquil- 
ity. Trade  revived  very  fast,  and  the  country  seemed  to 
be  free  from  faction.  In  1822,  the  independence  of  La  Plata 
was  recognised  by  the  United  States,  and  Great  Britain  en- 
tered into  a  treaty  with  her  in  1825.  In  December  of  1825 
war  broke  out  with  Brazil,  which  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  a  new  republic  from  the  Banda  Orienta.  Civil  war  dis- 
tracted and  desolated  the  country  in  1829,  and  it  continued 
until  1835,  when  general  Rosas  was  unanimously  called  to 
the  presidency.  He  assumed  dictatorial  powers,  and  since 
that  period,  factious  strife  has  only  been  suspended  during 
hostility  with  other  countries. 

The  independence  of  Chili  was  secured  in  1817  ;  but  the 
new  government  was  not  able  to  establish  order.  Three 
congresses  assembled  at  different  periods,  for  the  purpose 
of  framing  a  constitution,  but  they  failed  in  accomplishing 
their  object.  The  country  was  agitated  by  the  disputes 
between  the  advocates  of  a  central  government  and  those 
who  favored  a  federal  constitution.  In  1828,  the  constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  under  the  administration  of  general  Pinto. 
Prieto,  the  successor  of  Pinto,  restored  order,  and  procured 
the  passage  of  many  useful  laws.  In  1837,  Chili  declared 
war  against  Peru,  and  successfully  prosecuted  it  until  1839, 
when  Santa  Cruz  was  expelled  from  Peru.  Chili  is  at  pre- 
sent the  most  tranquil  and  prosperous  of  the  South  American 
btates. 


CHAP.  X. 

TIKES  OP  THB   CONTINENTAL   RET0LUTI0M8. 

France. 

The  approach  of  an  outbreak  among  the  people  of  Paris 
might  have  been  easily  gathered  from  the  movements  of  the 
democratic  leaders.  They  instituted  reform-banquets,  at 
which  the  measures  of  government  were  freely  discussed, 
and  attempts  made  to  excite  a  veneration  for  the  men  who 
had  fallen  martyrs  to  the  popular  cause,  and  an  emulation 
of  their  actions.     Feeling  certain  of  their  strength,  and 


CHAP.  X.  TEDS   CONTINENTAL  KEV0LUTI0N8.  59' 

anxious  to  bring  things  to  a  crisis,  the  democrats  appointed 
the  22d  of  February,  1848,  for  a  monster  banquet.  Thi/ 
was  forbidden  by  the  ministry.  The  opposition  deputiei 
protested  against  the  prohibition,  and  the  ministry  yielded, 
permitting  the  banquet  to  be  held,  under  certain  restrictions. 
Every  measure  was  adopted  by  the  government  to  prevent 
an  outbreak.  The  troops  in  Paris  were  increased  to  100,000. 
On  the  day  appointed  for  the  banquet,  crowds  collected  in 
the  principal  streets,  and  the  mob  attempted  to  erect  barri- 
cades. At  the  same  time,  Odillon  Barrot  laid  before  the 
chambers  a  proposition  for  impeaching  the  ministers.  The 
next  day  the  excitement  increased,  and  Guizot  and  his  col- 
leagues resigned.  A  new  ministry  was  formed  under  count 
Mofe.  The  municipal  guards  joined  the  people,  but  by 
sunset,  order  was  restored.  During  the  night,  the  soldiers, 
after  being  pelted  and  fired  upon  by  the  people,  fired  upon 
them  in  turn.  This  was  what  the  democrat  leaders  nad 
been  aiming  to  effect.  By  parading  and  exhibiting  the 
dead  bodies,  the  people  were  excited  to  fury,  and  that  fury 
was  turned  against  the  king. 

On   the  24th,  barricades  were   constructed,  houses  and 
public  edifices  stormed  and  demolished,  and  arms  seized  in 
every  quarter.     The  troops  joined  the  people  in  denouncing 
the  king.     The  Tuileries  was  taken  and  plundered.     Louis 
Philippe  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  count  of 
Paris,  and  fled  to  England.     In  the  mean  Mme,  the  duchess 
of  Orleans,  mother  to  the  count  of  Paris,  appeared  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  but  her  title  as  regent  and  that  of  her 
son  were  disregarded.     A  number  of  deputies  proclaimed  a 
republic,  and  organized  a  provisional  government.     This 
consisted  of  Dupont  de  I'Eure,  Lamartine,  Arago,    Ledru 
Rollin,  and  Gamier  Pages.     From  the  steps  of  the  Hotel  de 
Villc,  the  republic  was  announced  to  the  people.     It  was 
received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  majority,  but  there  was 
still  a  strong  minority  opposed  to  it.     The  penalty  of  death 
for  political  offences  was  abolished,  every  slave  on  French 
soil  emancipated,  and  the  qualifications  for  citizenship  de- 
termined.     By  the  1st  of  March,  order  was,  in  a  great 
measure,  secured,  and  the  new  government  went  into  opera- 
tion.    During  the  elections  in  April,  the  ^d  Republican* 
were  somewhat  turbulent,  but  Lamartine  triumphed.     Ai' 
executive  committee  of  five  members  took  the  place  of  th 
provisional   government.      It  consisted  of  Arago,   Pages, 
Marie,  Lamartine,  and  Rollin.     Riots  continued  until  the 
15th  of  May,  when  50,000  persons  invaded  the  assembly 
and  declared  the  government  at  an  end.     The  army,  how- 


698  msTORY  OF  the  world.  part  m. 

ever,  remained  true  to  the  government,  and  the  mob  was 
dispersed. 

On  the  23d  of  June,  an  insurrection  occurred,  instigated 
by  clubs  of  workmen,  discharged  from  the  public  workshops. 
It  was  the  most  terrible  outbreak  France  had  witnessed 
since  the  Reign  of  Terror.  In  a  few  hours,  strong  barri- 
cades were  thrown  up  in  and  around  Paris,  and  200,000 
insurgents  were  in  arms.  General  Cavaignac  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army,  and  after  a  four 
days'  battle,  he  succeeded  in  driving  the  insurgents  from 
their  works  and  restoring  peace.  About  30,000  persons 
were  killed,  the  loss  of  the  military  being  very  great.  Many 
distinguished  officers  were  among  the  killed.  General  Ca- 
vaignac was  subsequently  appointed  president  of  the  coun- 
cil, and  his  vigorous  measures  secured  tranquillity.  On  the 
12th  of  November,  the  constitution  was  proclaimed,  and  at 
the  general  election  held  the  same  month,  Louis  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  chosen  president  by  a  large  majority.  Soon 
after  the  election  j  it  was  determined  to  send  a  French  army 
into  Italy,  under  general  Oudinot,  for  the  purpose  of  restor- 
ing the  exiled  pope  to  his  dominions.  This  caused  numerous 
riots  in  France,  and  at  Lyons  the  municipal  authorities 
were  driven  from  the  city,  and  a  temporary  Red  Republican 
government  formed.  About  1000  persons  were  killed  or 
wounded  before  order  was  secured.  A  conspiracy  was 
discovered  about  the  same  time,  the  object  of  which  was 
the  overthrow  of  the  government  and  the  establishment  of  a 
democratic  and  social  republic.  Towards  the  close  of  1849, 
the  ministry  was  dissolved  by  president  Bonaparte,  and  the 
designs  of  the  president  to  concentrate  power  in  himself 
were  very  apparent. 

Great  Britain. 

In  1848,  the  evils  to  which  Ireland  had  long  been  a  prey 
reached  their  climax.  Famine  and  pestilence  desolated  the 
country,  and  brought  about  a  state  of  things  almost  impa- 
.Aileled  in  history.  The  principal  cause  of  the  misery  of  th^ 
people  was  the  failure  of  the  potato  crops — ^that  being  theii 
staple  article  of  food.  Thousands  died  daily.  The  scarcity 
of  provisions  upon  the  continent  prevented  the  arrival  of 
any  aid  from  that  quarter.  Government  took  means  to 
alleviate  the  distress,  and  large  quantities  of  provisions 
were  sent  from  the  United  States.  But  the  relief  was  only 
partial.  In  India,  a  war  with  the  Sikhs  was  the  conse- 
quence of  disputes  with  the  native  chiefs,  and  the  English 
experienced  a  humiliating  defeat.     But,  in  the  end,  th« 


OHAP.  X.  THE  OONTIintNTAL  REVOLUTIONS.  601 

Sikhs  were  routed  and  the  Punjaub  territory  annexed  to 
British  India.  Great  Britain  entered  her  protest  against 
the  annexation  of  the  Cracow  republic  to  Austria.  She  in- 
terfered in  the  domestic  affairs  of  Spain,  endeavoring  to 
restore  order.  Vigorous  measures  suppressed  the  repeal 
agitation  in  Ireland,  the  Chartist  effort  in  England,  and  the 
riots  in  Scotland.  The  vrar  with  China  was  quickly  brought 
to  a  close.  The  new  republic  of  France  was  recognised  aa 
such  soon  after  its  formation,  though  Louis  Philippe  was 
received  by  the  government  with  every  mark  of  attention 
and  condolence.  Great  Britain  remonstrated  against  the 
atrocities  committed  by  Austria  upon  the  Hungarian  and 
Polish  patriots.  She  promptly  supported  the  sultan  of 
Turkey  in  his  refusal  to  deliver  the  Hungarian  refugees 
into  the  hands  of  Russia,  and,  united  with  France,  undoubt- 
edly prevented  a  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

Italy. 
In  1848,  Pius  IX.  gave  a  new  constitution  to  his  people, 
'  and  reformed  many  abuses.  He  also  resisted  the  interf©- 
rence  of  Austria.  Still  the  people  of  the  Papal  States  were 
BO  oppressed,  that  in  the  latter  part  of  that  year,  they  rose 
in  insurrection,  drove  the  pope  from  the  country,  abolished 
the  college  of  cardinals,  and  proclaimed  a  republic.  A  con 
stitution  was  framed,  and  a  provisional  government  esta- 
blished. While  all  were  watching  the  result  of  the  movement, 
the  French  army,  under  general  Oudinot,  landed  at  Civita 
Vecchia,  and  marched  for  Rome.  On  the  26th  of  April,  the 
constituent  assembly  declared  its  permanence,  and  pro- 
tested against  French  interference.  A  triumvirate  of  dis 
tinguished  republican  leaders  formed  the  executive  of  the 
government.  The  siege  began  on  the  30th  of  April.  The 
Romans,  filled  with  the  most  heroic  and  determined  spirit, 
were  commanded  by  Garibaldi,  Mazzini,  and  other  distin- 
guished chiefs.  The  French  were  repulsed  in  three  suc- 
cessive attacks.  On  the  13th  of  May,  Oudinot  attempted  to 
cross  into  Rome  by  a  bridge,  but  the  bridge  was  blown  up 
and  the  French  repulsed.  A  blockade  followed,  which 
lasted  until  June,  when  the  French,  after  hard  fighting, 
obtained  possession  of  several  important  points.  A  storm- 
ing of  the  city  was  tried  on  the  15th,  but  the  French  were 
compelled  to  retire.  Towards  the  close  of  the  month,  the 
^iumvirate  opened  negotiations  with  Oudinot.  A  capitula- 
tion was  the  consequence,  and  on  the  3d  of  July,  the  French 
entered  Rome.  The  republican  leaders  fled.  A  temporary 
government  was  established,  the  cardinals  restored  to  powei^ 


602 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD. 


PART  m. 


and  the  popo  invited  to  return.  Vigorous  measures  were 
adopted  for  the  suppression  of  liberal  opinions,  and  the  In- 
quisition re-established.  The  pope  has  at  length  returnad 
to  his  dominions,  and  a  calm  has  succeeded  the  attempt  of 
the  masses  to  choose  their  own  government. 

Germany  and  Prussia. 
The  revolutionary  spirit  developed  throughout  Europe,  in 
1848,  powerfully  affected  both  Germany  and  Prussia.  Every 
part  of  these  countries  was  agitated  by  riots  for  some  months 
after  the  revolution  in  France.  The  king  of  Bavaria  was 
compelled  to  abdicate,  and  other  rulers  were  driven  from 
their  dominions.  An  outbreak  in  Prussia  forced  the  king 
to  disband  a  large  part  of  his  army,  to  grant  a  new  consti- 
tution, and  to  appear  to  take  the  lead  in  reforming  ajjuses. 
The  diet  at  Frankfort  was  the  scene  of  violent  debates,  con- 
cerning a  union  of  all  Central  and  Northern  Germany.  The 
imperial  crown  was  offered  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  he 
declined  it.  The  country  is  still  in  a  distracted  state.  Its 
division  into  petty  states,  destitute  of  national  sympathy, 
prevents  it  from  occupying  the  position  among  the  European 
powers  to  which  it  is  justly  entitled.  Belgium  and  Holland 
were  affected  by  the  revolutionary  spirit,  but  the  succeeding 
calm  left  both  countries  in  the  same  condition  as  before  the 
disturbance. 

Austria. 

Insurrections  occurred  in  Vienna  soon  after  the  revolu- 
tion in  France,  and  the  people  so  far  succeeded,  that  prince 
Metternich  fled  from  the  country,  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Joseph,  and  a  liberal  constitu- 
tion was  given  to  the  people.  In  the  mean  time,  the  diet 
of  Hungary  adopted  measures  for  securing  to  the  people  of 
that  country  their  ancient  privileges.  In  May,  1848,  the 
pope  having  declared  war  against  Austria,  several  skirmishes 
took  place,  in  which  the  heroism  of  the  Italians  was  credit- 
ably displayed.  The  dissensions  in  Hungary  increased  to 
civil  war,  so  that  the  government  was  compelled  to  send  a 
large  army  into  the  province.  But  the  Hungarians,  stimu- 
lated by  the  eloquence  of  Kossuth,  and  led  by  Bem,  Dem- 
binski,  and  G«orgey,  displayed  the  greatest  heroism  and 
enthusiasm  for  their  country's  cause.  The  ablest  Austrian 
generals  were  everywhere  defeated  by  them,  and  their  cause 
seemed  to  be  triumphant.  But  the  emperor  of  Eussia, 
anxious  to  crush  the  spirit  of  revolution  and  of  liberty,  eenl 
an  army  of  120,000  men  into  Hungary,  to  assist  the  Au»« 


EMPEROR    WILLIAM. 


£oa;atL. 


OHAP.  Z.  THE  CONTINENTAL    KEV0LUTI0N8.  605 

trians.  The  Hungarians  struggled  against  such  odds  with 
considerable  success,  until  the  latter  part  of  1849,  when 
general  Georgey  surrendered  a  force  of  30,000  inen  to  the 
Austro-Russian  army.  This  opened  to  the  lutltr  the  key 
of  the  Hungarian  position,  and  produced  a  disastrous  ter- 
mination to  the  insurrection.  The  Hungarian  army  was 
disbanded,  its  leaders  escaped,  and  the  country  was  again 
brought  under  Austrian  authority.  Kossuth  and  his  fellow 
chieftains  fled  to  Turkey.  The  emperor  of  Russia  demanded 
their  surrender,  but  the  sultan  refused  to  comply.  Since 
the  crushing  of  the  insurrection,  the  Austrians  have  in- 
flicted the  most  cruel  and  barbarous  treatment  upon  the 
unfortunate  patriots,  which  has  awakened  a  feeling  of  in- 
dignation throughout  the  greater  portion  of  Europe  and 
America. 

Russia  and  Turkey. 

Russia  took  a  decided  part  in  the  events  of  1848,  on  the 
side  of  legitimacy.  The  emperor  was  opposed  to  the  revolu- 
tion in  France,  and  frowned  upon  the  struggles  of  the 
republicans  in  Italy  and  Germany.  When  the  war  between 
Austria  and  Hungary  was  raging,  he  declared  his  intention 
of  apply'ng  the  strength  of  his  empire  to  resist  the  attempts 
of  the  republicans.  When  the  Hungarian  leaders  took 
refuge  in  Turkey,  he  demanded  their  surrender,  and  threat- 
ened war  in  case  of  refusal.  But  his  demand  was  not  com- 
plied with,  nor  did  he  carry  his  threat  into  operation .  The 
Bultan  gave  Kossuth  and  the  other  Hungarian  leaders  a 
place  of  residence  in  his  dominions,  and  some  of  them,  em- 
bracing the  Mohammedan  faith,  received  office  in  the  army 
and  other  marks  of  his  favor. 

The  Untied  States. 
Early  in  1848,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.  The  Rio  Grande  was  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Mexican  government  as  the  boundary 
of  Texas,  and  the  valuable  territories  of  California  and  New 
Mexico  were  ceded  to  the  United  States.  In  November,  the 
same  year,  the  Whigs  elected  general  Zachary  Taylor  to  the 
presidency.  The  discovery  of  the  immense  mineral  wealth 
of  California  caused  a  vast  number  of  emigrants  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  to  seek  that  territory,  and  cities  and 
states  are  springing  up  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  which, 
till  within  a  few  years,  were  almost  unknown.  The  quantity 
of  gold  obtained  in  California  has  realized  the  most  sanguine 
expectations,  and  rewarded  the  hardest  toil.  In  18 19,  tha 
61  iT 


606  mSTOET  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  m 

country  was  nsited  by  the  scourge  of  the  choleia,  which, 
among  thousands  of  victims,  carried  away  many  who  had 
filled  distinguished  situations,  among  whom  were  generals 
Gaines,  and  Worth,  and  ex-president  Polk.  Since  that 
event,  the  exciting  debates  in  congress,  upon  the  subject  of 
slavery,  the  dismissal  of  M.  Poussin,  the  French  ministei 
to  the  United  States,  and  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to 

fain  possession  of  Cuba,  by  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
ave  been  the  only  events  which  have  disturbed  the  internal 
peace,  and  external  relations  of  the  country. 

During  the  congressional  session  of  1849-50,  the  excite- 
ment upon  the  slavery  question  increased  to  an  extent 
which  threatened  the  dismemberment  of  the  Union.  In  the 
Senate,  a  committee  of  thirteen  of  the  most  prominent 
statesmen,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Henry  Clay,  was  ap- 
pointed to  bring  about  an  adjustment  of  the  vexed  question. 
They  reported  a  Compromise  BiU,  providing  for  the  ad- 
mission of  California  into  the  Union,  the  recapture  of  slaves 
fleeing  from  one  state  into  another,  the  settlement  of  the 
claim  of  Texas  on  New  Mexico,  and  giving  a  territorial 
government  to  Utah.  This  bill  was  discussed  in  the  Senate 
for  two  months,  and  the  ablest  statesmen  displayed  their 
talents  in  speaking  upon  either  side  of  the  question. 
Finally,  the  Compromise  measure  was  defeated.  But  each 
of  the  objects  of  the  bill  was  afterwards  provided  for  sepa- 
rately. 

While  the  biU  was  pending,  the  nation  was  suddenly 
called  upon  to  mourn  the  loss  of  its  chief  magistrate.  Pre- 
sident Taylor  died  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850.  MiUard  Fill- 
more, the  vice-president,  then  became  president.  The 
memlaers  of  the  cabinet  appointed  by  general  Taylor  im- 
mediately resigned ;  and  president  Fillmore  fi  amed  a  new 
cabinet,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Daniel  Weteter,  as 
Secretary  of  State. 


CHAP.  Xr,  THE  OLD  WOELD  FHOM   1849  TO  1885.  607 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   OLD   WOELD   FKOM    1849   TO   1885. 

France. 

Louis  Natoleon  was  elected  Emperor  (1852),  and  married 
Engenio  de  Montijoy;  attempts  "were  made  to  assassinate  the 
emperor.     In  IBol  war  was  begun  against  Russia.     The  Em- 
peror and  Empress  visited  Loudon,   and  Queen  Victoria  re- 
turned the  visit,  1,000  political  prisoners  were  released  at  the 
birth  of  the  Prince  Imperial  in  1856.     Several  attempts  were 
made  about  this  time  to  assassinate  the  Emperor.     In  1859, 
upon  Austria  invading  Sardinia,    the    French  declared    war 
as^ainst  her,  and  the  Emperor  entered  Italy  vnih  large  armies, 
joining  the  ItaUans,  and  they,  united,  won  the  battles  of  Mag- 
euta  and  Solf  erino.     Austria  and  France  concluded  a  peace  at 
Villa  Franoa.      In  1860,  the  Emperor  announced  a  free  trade 
policy.     The  passport  system  was  departed  from  in  1861.     In 
this  year  several  railroad  contractors  and  brokers  made  fraudu- 
lent failures  and  greatly  shook  the  public  credit.     France  de- 
clared herself  neutral  in  the  American  conflict  (1861).     France 
joined  several  other  powers  to  intervene  in  Mexican  affairs, 
soon  after  the  allies  left  the  French  alone  to  support  Maximil- 
lian  for  Emperor.     In  1862  the  French  conquered  and  retain- 
ed several  jjarts  of  Cochin  China  and  Annam.    In  1864  another 
attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  the  Emperor.      In  1865  the 
French  and  English  fleets  exchanged  friendly    visits  at  Cher- 
burg  and  Portsmouth.      A  note  sent  to  the  Prussians  relative 
to  rectification  of  the  frontier  declared  inadmissable.    The  Em- 
perors of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the  King  of  Prussia  visited 
Paris.      The  arrest  of  the  editor  Rochefort  led  to  riots,  which 
were  put  down.     A  vote  of  confidence  is  given  to  the  Govern- 
ment in  the  ratio  of  7  to  1.     In  1870,  in  consequence  of  a  dis- 
pute about  the  succession  to  the  Spanish  throne  of  Prince 
Leopold  Hohenzollern,  France  declared  war  against  Prussia. 
After  many  gi-eat  battles  and  successful  seiges,  the  Prussians, 
allied  with  several  other  German  powers,  capture  the  French 
Emperor  and  enter  Paris.     The  Empress  left  Paris  and  arrived 
in  England.     A  republican  government  is  organized,  which  is 
recognized  by  the  United  States.     An  attempt  by  the  Red  Rc- 
pubUcans  to  found  the  "  Commune  "  in  Paris  is  put  do\\'n  after 
much  bloodshed.     In  1871,  Grevey  was  elected  President,  and 
soon  after  the  war  terminated.      Thiers  was  recognized  by  the 
people  and  foreign  powers  as  the  head  of  the  government. 
An  insurrection  took  place  in  Paris  against  the  goverumeut, 


COS 


HISTOEY  OF  TOE  "WOBLD. 


PAETm. 


but  was  finally  put  do^Ti  after  vast  damage  and  great  slaughter. 
Before  the  final  suppression  of  the  "  Commune  "  insurrection, 
over  one  foiu-th  of  Paris  was  destroj'ed,  and  50, 000  i^ersons 
killed.  lu  1873 ,  Kapoleon  III.,  died  at  Chiselhurst,  England. 
In  1873,  Thiers,  after  nobly  serving  his  coimtry  in  the  times  of 
her  direst  troubles,  resigns  his  ministry.  In  this  year  the 
whole  of  the  armed  Germans  left  France.  By  the  end  of  this 
year  the  last  of  the  enormous  indemnity  to  Germany,  had  been 
paid.  The  partizans  of  the  Bourbons  made  unsuccessful  efforts 
to  restore  royalty.  In  187G,  France  had  so  far  recovered  from 
her  difficulties  that  the  annual  revenue  had  reached  $500,000,- 
000.  The  i^resident,  McMahon,  was  supported  by  the  bulk  of 
the  people.  In  1879,  McMahon  resigned  the  Presidency. 
Grevey  succeeded  him.  Louis,  son  of  Napoleon  III. ,  was  killed 
in  Zuliiland.  A  decree  passed  expelling  the  Jesuits  (1880),  and 
other  religious  orders.  A  loan  of  $200,000,000  immediately 
taken  up  for  30  times  that  amount.  In  1881,  a  proposed  re- 
vision of  the  Constitution  was  negatived. 

After  the  retirement  of  Thiers,  Gambetti  became  the  fore- 
most statesman  of  France,  urging  forward  reforms;  but  in  1882, 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  having  rejected  his  bill,  advising  the 
revision  of  the  Constitution,  he  resigned;  he  was  succeeded  in 
office  bj'^  M.  De  Freycinet.  In  1883,  much  alarm  was  manifest- 
ed in  France,  by  a  manifesto  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon;  he  was 
aiTested,  and  expelled  the  country.  A  decree  followed,  for- 
bidding any  prince  from  holding  either  civil  or  mihtary  office 
in  the  Republic.  After  much  diplomatic  fencing,  the  French 
assumed  a  warlike  front;  sent  expeditions  to  Formosa,  and  other 
outljing  dependences  of  China;  and  routed  the  forces  arrayed 
against  them.  The  government  ordered  official  inquiry  into 
the  state  of  the  working  classes,  who  were  reduced  to  great  ex- 
tremities from  lack  of  work.  The  Bey  of  Tunis  has  given 
French  engineers  leave  to  turn  the  Sahara  desert  into  an  in- 
land sea.  In  1884,  a  horrible  massacre  of  Christian  priests  and 
their  converts  took  place  at  Tonquin,  following  the  French 
successes.  Throughout  1881,  Toiilon,  Marseilles  and  other 
Southern  ports  were  great  sufferers  by  cholera,  and  the  conse- 
quent depression  of  commerce.  The  differences  between 
France  and  China  showed  signs  of  being  settled  1884.  After 
a  delay  of  three  months  active  operations  in  Tonquin  were  re- 
sumed, and  Bacninh  was  captured  (March  12).  The  Chinese 
garrison  retreated  to  the  frontier  without  striking  a  blow.  The 
French  troops  returning  to  Sontay  advanced  to  Honghoa  and 
occupied  it  (AprU  13).  The  Empress-Regent  was  forced  to 
make  a  decision  and  resolved  upon  peace.  Li  Hung  Chang 
negotiated  a  treaty  (May  11),  in  which  the  claim  for  the  indem- 
nity was  withdrawn  and  the  French  protectorate  of  Anam  and 


CHAP.  Xr.  THE  OLD  WOELD  FEOM  1849  TO  1885.  609 

Tonquin  was  conceded,  together  with  important  trading  privi- 
leges with  Yunnan  and  other  provinces.  M.  Ferry  had  won  a 
conspicuous  triumph.  A  province  with  11,000,000  subjects 
had  virtually  been  ceded  to  r'rance.  But  success  due  chielly  to 
audacity  and  recklessness  tempted  him  to  persevere  iu  his  policy 
of  menace  and  reprisal.  The  assault  of  a  body  of  Chinese  ir- 
regular troojis  upon  a  French  coliunn  of  700  men  near  Lang- 
son  (Juno  23)  was  declared  to  bo  a  flagrant  violation  of  the 
treaty  recently  concluded,  and  a  enormous  indenuaity  was  de- 
manded. Resistance  to  a  demand  based  upon  an  accident  for 
which  the  French  commanders  have  been  shown  to  be  chiefly 
responsible  has  involved  a  resumption  of  hostilities. 

The  French  fleet  bombarded  Foochow,  destroyed  the  arsenal 
and  forts  on  the  IVIin  Eiver,  and  then  took  possession  of  Kehmg, 
in  Formosa.  M.  Ferry  insisted,  while  proposing  a  vote  of  credit 
for  Tonquin  operations,  that  he  was  not  making  war  with  China 
but  only  securing  pledges  for  an  indemnity  that  would  even- 
tually bo  paid.  The  operations  of  his  fleet  did  not  have  the  ef- 
fect of  intimidating  China,  although  the  demonstration  against 
Formosa  was  repeated.  The  French  troops  in  Tonquin  were 
forced  to  act  on  the  defensive  in  October,  and  although  the 
blockade  of  portions  of  the  coast  has  been  maintained  the  war 
party  in  Pekin  has  been  able  to  reject  all  proposals  for  peace, 
even  when  broached  under  the  guise  of  English  mediation 
Warlike  operations  in  IMadagascar  have  not  been  actively  re- 
sumed, although  French  influence  is  steadily  gaining  ground. 
Tunis  is  rapidly  being  converted  into  a  i^rovince,  the  capitula- 
tions having  been  suspended,  and  the  treasury  having  passed 
under  the  control  of  a  French  agent. 

M.  Ferry,  while  staggering  under  the  burdens  of  foreign 
campaigning,  has  contrived  to  secure  the  sujiport  of  the  Cham- 
bers and  to  undertake  the  responsible  duty  of  revising  the  Con- 
stitution and  the  Senatorial  electoral  system.  Revision  was 
approached  cautiously  and  under  limitations  car<?fully  defined 
in  advance.  The  National  Assembly  completed  its  work 
(August  13)  without  departing  from  thelines  laid  for  its  action. 
There  were  disorderly  exhibitions  of  Radical  turbulence,  but 
the  contract  between  the  Chambers  was  not  violated.  The 
changes  in  the  fundamental  law  were  not  sweeping  in  character. 
The  Princes  were  declared  incli.gible  for  niihtary  or  civil  office, 
and  the  Senatorial  electorate  was  brought  within  the  scope  of 
subsequent  legislation.  This  legislation  has  rapidly  followed. 
The  Government's  bill  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Senate  has 
been  adopted  by  both  Chambers.  The  Depiities  undertook 
to  amend  it  by  providing  for  the  election  of  all  Senators  by 
departmental  household  suffrage.  This  amendment  was  re- 
jected by  the  Senate  and  the  Deputies  wore  forced  to  jneld 
under  penalty  of  receiving  M.    Ferry's  resignation.      The 


^^g 

^ 


610  HTHTOBT  OP  THE  WOELD.  PAET  in. 

Senate  hereafter  will  not  have  seventy-five  life  members,  but 
•will  be  an  elective  assembly,  the  electoral  bodies  consisting 
of  the  Council-General  of  the  Department  and  a  contingent 
of  delegates  chosen  by  the  communal  councils  on  the  basis  of 
population.  Universal  suffrage  will  be  directly  responsible 
for  the  Deputies  and  indirectly  responsible  for  the  Senators. 

Oreat  Britavn. 

In  1848  there  was  a  great  Chartist  demonstration  in  Lon- 
don, headed  by  Feargus  O'Connor;  on  the  day  when  the  mon- 
ster petition  was  presented  to  Parliament,  by  over  100,000 
men,  apprehensions  were  felt  for  the  safety  of  London,  and 
tens  of  thousands  of  special  policemen  were  sworn  in;  the 
banks  and  other  public  buildings  were  guarded  by  troops;  all 
passed  off  quietly,  however.  In  the  year  1849,  Queen  Vic- 
toria visited  Ireland.  In  1850  the  World's  Exhibition  was  an- 
nounced. A  man  named  Pate  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
on  the  Queen's  life.  A  good  deal  of  excitement  was  occasioned 
by  the  papal  power  establishing  a  Eoman  Catholic  Hierarchy 
in  England.  The  first  great  Exhibition  or  ' '  World's  Fair, " 
was  opened  May  1,  1851.  Prince  Albert  was  the  originator, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  its  organizer.  Australian  gold  ar- 
rived in  England  in  December.  Thomas  Moore,  the  great 
poet  and  song-writer,  died  this  year.  An  eccentric  miser, 
named  Nield,  bequeathed  over  a  million  of  dollars  to  the 
Queen.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,,  died  in  Sept.  1852,  and 
was  buried  with  more  than  royal  honors  at  St.  Paul's.  In 
1853  English  and  French  fleets  entered  the  Bosphorus,  and 
most  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  signed  a  protocol  urging 
peace  between  Turkey  and  Russia.  At  the  great  strike  in 
Preston  more  than  15,000  hands  were  out  of  employment. 
May,  1854,  England,  France  and  Turkey  declared  war  against 
Russia.  In  June,  1854,  the  Crystal  Palace  was  opened  by  the 
Queen.  In  1855,  Palmerston  became  prime  minister.  The 
Crimean  war,  cost  much  blood  and  treasure.  Peace  with 
Russia  was  proclaimed  in  May  1856,  when  London  was  illu- 
minated. This  same  year  saw  England  at  war  with  both 
China  and  Persia.  The  terrible  mutiny  in  the  Indian  army 
broke  out  March,  1857,  and  was  marked  by  the  most  fearful 
excesses  and  brutalities  on  the  part  of  tha  "Sepoys,"  who 
were  put  down  with  great  difficulty.  At  meetings  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  sufferers  by  the  mutiny  upwards  of  a  million  dol- 
lars were  raised.  In  1858  the  Princess  Royal  of  England  was 
married  to  Prince  Frederick  William,  of  Prussia.  In  1859, 
rifle  corps  were  first  organized  in  Great  Britain;  they  became 
very  popular,  and  now  furnish  a  large  and  effective  army. 
Peace  was  made  with  China,  1860.  Prince  Albert,  the  Queen's 
husband,  died  in  1861.    During  1862,  very  great  distress  pre- 


CHAP.  XI.  THE   OLD  WOELD   FORM   1819   TO  1885.  611 

vailed  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  districts,  in  part  caused 
by  the  civil  war  in  United  States.  In  1863  the  Princess  Alex- 
andra of  Denmark,  entered  London,  and  -was  married  to  tlie 
Prince  of  Wales;  she  was  much  admired  for  her  beauty,  and 
loved  for  her  virtues.  In  1801  Garibaldi  received  a  fine  re- 
ception in  England.  In  1865,  a  general  election  took  place, 
which  resulted  in  favor  of  Palmerston;  but  that  popular 
minister  died  too  soon  to  reap  any  good  from  his  triumph;  he 
was  succeeded  as  i^remier  by  Lord  John  Russell.  In  1866, 
the  Atlantic  cables  were  laid  and  messages  transmitted  be- 
tween England  and  the  United  States.  Fenians  were  frus- 
trated in  an  intended  attack  on  the  City  of  Chester.  In  1867, 
several  Fenians  were  rescued  from  the  hands  of  the  authori- 
ties at  Manchester.  An  armed  expedition  was  sent  to  Abys- 
sinia to  release  prisoners.  In  was  eminently  successful.  The 
King  of  Abyssinia  was  slain  in  battle,  and  the  troops  under 
Napier,  returned  in  good  form.  In  1871  the  Princess  Louisa, 
was  married  to  the  Marquis  of  Lome  (afterwards  Governor- 
General  of  Canada).  In  consequence  of  a  Fenian  explosion 
near  Clerkenwell  Prison,  London,  special  constables  were 
called  for,  and  113,674  volunteered  in  a  few  days. 

The  bill  to  "  disestablish  "  the  Enf,'lish  Church  in  Ireland, 
was  adopted  by  the  Commons  in  186^.      The  summer  of  this 
year  was  the  hottest  ever  known  in  England,  and  21,000  extra 
deaths  resulted  from  the  heat.      In  1871  the  Prince  of  Wales 
was  seriously  ill,  with  tjqihoid  fever;  great  rejoicing  through 
Great  IJritain  at  his  recovery;  the  Queen's  Eoyal  Family,  Court 
and  Parliament  went  in  state  to  St.  Paul's  to  return  thanks. 
In  the  general  election  (1874),   the  Conservatives  gained  a 
majority  of  50,  aud  Disraeli  became  prime  minister.      A  man  . 
claiming  to  be  heir  to  the  Tichborne  estates  and  a  barony  was 
tried  for  fraud,   convicted,  and  sentenced  to  be  imprisoned. 
A  great  number  of  persons  believe  him  to  be  the  real   heir 
still.     An  expedition  against  the  Ashantees,  was  brought  to  a 
successful  issue  by  Gen.  Garnet  Wolseley.     In  May,  1874,  the 
Czar  of  Eussia  paid  a  friendly  visit  to  London.      Moody  and 
Sankey,     the    American    llevivalists  visited    England,    and 
preached  and  sung,  making  an  excellent  impi'ession  and  do- 
ing much  good.     The  British   Government  bought  all   the 
Khedive's  shares  in  the  Suez  canal,  which  enteqirize   had 
proved  a  great  benefit  to  English  commerce.      The  Prince  of 
Wales  visited  India,  where  he  was  magnificently  received  by 
many  of  the  native  sovereigns.      The  Queen  was  proclaimed 
"Empress  of  India,"  and  instituted  the  order  of  the  Star  of 
India   to  be  confei'red  upon  persons,   natives  as  well  as  En- 
glish, who  have  ' '  deserved  well  of  their  countrj'. "     Mr.  Glad- 
stone's book  "Horrors  in  P>ulgaria  "  greatly  excited  the  pub- 
lic mind,   and  changed  the  feeling  in   favor   of   llnssia,    as 
against  Turkey,  the  two  nations  being  at  war.     But  upon  the 


612  HISTOBT  OF  THE  WOELD.  PAST  HI. 

nefir  approach  of  the  Russians  to  Constantinople  the  old  fear 
of  Russia  was  manifested,  and  Indian  troops  were  ordered  to 
Malta.  It  was  resolved  to  call  a  meeting  of  representatives 
of  the  great  powers  at  Berlin,  to  consider  the  Eastern  ques- 
tion. Disraeli  was  sustained  in  Parliament,  as  against  the 
measures  proposed  hy  Gladstone.  A  special  meeting  of  Par- 
liament was  called  on  account  of  the  Afghan  war.  The  Prin- 
cess Alice  (Victoria's  daughter),  dies  at  Darmstadt,  of  diphthe- 
ria, after  attendance  on  her  hiisband  and  children,  and  the 
Queen  wrote  a  letter  of  thanks  to  her  subjects  "for  their  sym- 
pathy with  her  loss  of  a  dear  child,  who  was  a  bright  example 
of  loving  tenderness,  courageovis  devotion  and  self  sacrifice 
to  duty."  In  1879  the  Zulu  war  broke  out,  and  an  expedition 
of  nearly  10,000  men  was  sent  to  quell  it.  This  year  there 
was  great  depression  of  trade,  "caused  by  famine,  pestilence, 
war,  and  over-trading."  The  summer  had  been  wet  and  cold, 
rarely  any  sunshine,  and  an  almost  total  failure  of  fruit  and 
grain  crops.  In  1880,  there  was  a  general  election,  which 
proved  a  conservative  defeat,  after  which  a  Gladstone  minis- 
try was  formed.  The  autumn  saw  fine  weather,  good  crops, 
and  improvement  in  nearly  every  kind  of  business.  An  early 
meeting  of  Parliament,  to  consider  Irish  affairs  particularly, 
was  decided  on  in  Jan.  1881. 

In  Nov.  1881,  Chas.  S.  Parnell,  M.  P.,  and  several  other 
Land  Leaguers  were  arrested  in  Dublin,  under  the  Coercion 
Act,  and  the  League  pronounced  illegal.  Following  this,  the 
tenants  were  advised  to  pay  no  rent  during  the  imprisonment 
of  the  Leaguers.  A  reign  of  terror  ensued;  law  was  set  at  de- 
fiance, secret  societies  were  formed,  and  many  crimes  were 
committed.  Two  of  the  leading  of&cials  of  the  Viceroy  were 
•  stabbed  to  death  in  Phenix  Park.  Some  of  the  assassins,  after 
a  time,  were  convicted  and  executed.  The  opponents  of  the 
Government  were  divided;  one  part  determined  on  achieving 
their  ends  by  force;  the  other  by  agitation  and  legal  tac- 
tics. 

The  interest  that  England  was  almost  forced  to  take  in 
Egypt,  in  order  to  secure  the  Suez  canal,  led  her  into  many 
difficulties  and  vast  expenditures.  Having,  with  France,  as- 
sumed a  kind  of  protectorate  over  the  Khedive,  she  essayed 
to  give  the  people  a  sort  of  "  home  "  government.  It  failed 
to  work,  and  in  consequence  Arabi  Pasha,  a  popular  ofiicer 
of  the  native  force,  assumed  royal  airs.  England  and  France 
sent  an  ultimatum  requiring  expulsion  of  Arabi  Bay;  the 
army  declined  to  accede;  great  riots  and  panic  ensued  in  Alex- 
andria, during  which  340  Europeans  were  killed.  In  July, 
Admiral  Seymour  sent  an  order  that  the  fortifying  of  Alexan- 
dria must  cease.  No  notice  being  taken  by  the  rebels,  a  bom- 
bardment, lasting  two  days,  followed.  The  rebels  fled,  after 
liberating  all  criminals  fi-om  the  jails,  firing  the  city,  and  in- 


CHAP.  XI.  THE   OLD  WOELD   FEOM    1810   TO  1S85.  G13 

au"urating  a  saturnalia  of  massacre.  The  rebellion  was 
quelled  Hept.  25,  wheu  the  Khedive  returned  to  Cairo. 

In  consequence  of  the  Khedive's  sway  in  the  Soudan  being 
rejected,  and  sovereign  powers  assumed  by  ElMahdi  (the 
False  Prophet),  many  garrisons  were  massacred.  Baker 
Pasha  and  Tewfik  Bey,  commanding  small  armies  of  Egj'ptian 
troops  were  defeated,  with  great  loss.  General  Gordon,  sent 
to  temporise  with  El  IMahdi,  was  shut  up  in  Khartoum, 
which  he  is  successfully  holding,  waiting  for  succor  from  Gen. 
Wolseley  who  expects  to  reach  him  by  March,  1885,  hastening 
with  an  English  army. 

The  House  of  Commons  appointed  a  committee  to  investi- 
gate the  housing  of  the  poor,  and  suggest  improvements. 

In  March,  1882,  Queen  Victoria  was  fired  at  by  Roderick 
McLean.  The  bullet  missed.  The  man  was  arrested,  but 
not  vindictively  punished.  A  motion  was  made  in  the  House 
of  Commons  for  government  to  use  influence  with  Czar  of 
Russia  in  behalf  of  persecuted  Jews. 

An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  punish  the  Boers. 

Dec,  1882,  Tuit,  Archibishop  of  Canterbury,  and  a  famous 
author,  died  in  London.  Anthony  Trolloppe,  died  at  same 
date.  A  tire  in  London  was  not  quenched  until  $15,U00,000 
•was  destroyed.  Jamaica's  capital,  Kingston,  was  nearly  all 
consumed,  with  a  loss  of  many  miUions  of  dollars.  England's 
great  statesman,  Gladstone,  celebrated  the  fiftieth  year  of  hia 
pubUc  life  (1882). 

Kavanagh,  a  carman,  tunis  informer  in  the  Phcsnix  Park, 
Dublin  cases,  when  Cavendish  and  Burke  were  killed  (1883). 
A  few  days  after  James  Carey,  the  principal  conspirator  also 
turned  informer.  On  the  information  thus  furnished  Joe 
Brady  was  tried,  convicted,  and  hung.  Some  months  after 
the  informer  Carey  was  shot  in  Africa,  by  O'Dounell,  who 
was  himself  taken  to  England  and  executed  (1883).  In  March 
of  1883,  many  government  buildings  in  London,  were  badly 
shattered  by  maUcious  dynamite  explosions.  John  Brown, 
long  the  personal  attendant  of  Queen  Victoria  died  at  this 
time.  Two  thousand  houses  at  Delhi,  India,  were  burnt. 
Sunderland,  England,  was  grief  stricken  by  the  crashing 
to  death  of  202  small  children  in  a  stairway  of  a  hall,  where 
they  had  gone  to  receive  little  presents.  House  of  Lords  re- 
ject deceased  wife's  sister  bill.  A  great  Bradlaugh  demon- 
stration, a  protest  against  his  rejection  by  the  Comiuons  took 
place  in  Augtist.  Several  dynamite  conspirators  in  Liverjjool 
were  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  (1884).  Vague 
rumors  floated  about  India,  of  another  "Sepoy  "  outbreak;but 
no  facts  were  known  to  the  authorities.  India  for  some  years 
has  been  greatly  increasing  the  production  of  wheat,  which 
commands  a  good  price  in  the  English  markets.  The  British 
ship-bullding  (irou),  trade  has  been  increasing  year  by  year 


614  HISTOBT  OP  THE  WORLD.  PABT  HI. 

enormoili5ly.  But  in  1884,  it  became  app  arent  that  the  busi- 
ness had  been  over-done,  and  there  was  a  decrease  in  pro- 
duction, and  a  lowering  of  wages. 

The  British  Ministry  have  been  subjected  to  continuous 
criticism  by  their  inglorious  policy  in  Egypt.  The  first  mo- 
tion of  censure  was  defeated  in  the  Commons  by  a  vote  of  311 
to  2G2  (February  9),  and  the  second  motion  in  March  by  a 
vote  of  303  to  275,  Mr.  Foster  and  other  Liberals  abstaining 
from  voting  and  the  Parnellites  joining  the  Tories.  The  fi- 
nancial situation  of  Egypt  has  grown  steadily  worse,  and  the 
Government  have  been  unable  to  obtain  the  consent  of 
Europe  to  a  modification  of  the  Law  of  Liquidation.  The 
Conference  of  the  Powers  proved  futile  even  after  humiliat- 
ing concessions  had  been  made  to  France,  and  the  recent 
proposals  of  the  l^ritish  Ministry  have  failed  to  secure  the  at- 
tention of  the  Powers.  Payments  to  the  Sinking  Fund  un- 
der the  Law  of  Liquidation  ceased  on  September  17,  theEg3'^p- 
tian  treasury  paying  the  guarranteed  interest  instead  of  allow- 
ing theCaisse  to  use  certain  revenues  for  the  benefit  of  the  bond 
holders.  The  Powers  have  protested  against  this  innovation, 
and  England  is  hamjDered  in  every  way  by  Europe  in  restor- 
ing financial  order  in  Egyjit. 

The  British  Government  have  had  serious  trouble  in  deal- 
ing with  Europeans  and  natives  in  South  Africa,  during  1883 
and  188-1.  The  Boers  are  both  restless  and  faithless  and  are 
constantly  instigating  dissensions  beyond  their  frontiers.  On 
the  side  of  Zululand  they  are  aiming  to  reach  the  sea  and  are 
encouraging  the  settlers  beyond  the  reserve  to  assert  inde- 
pendence of  the  British  Crown.  On  the  side  of  Bechuana- 
land  the  Boers  are  secretly  abetting  filibustering  and  ma- 
rauding and  opposing  the  authority  of  the  Crown.  The  Cape 
Ministers  having  failed  to  settle  thi.s  coutroversy  peaceably,  the 
HomeGovernment  have  sent  Sir  Charles  Warren  with  a  small 
expedition  to  restore  order. 

In  Australia  the  same  want  of  steadiness  in  British  policy 
has  involved  vacillation  and  delay  in  the  annexation  of  New- 
Guinea  and  enabled  Germany  to  secure  a  foothold  on  the 
island  and  on  the  adjacent  groups. 

In  India  Lord  liipon  has  given  place  to  Lord  Dufferin,  as 
Viceroy,  after  well-meant  but  futile  attempts  to  institute  re- 
forms that  are  obnoxious  to  the  British  residents.  The 
movement  in  favor  of  Australian  federations  is  rapidly  gaining 
ground. 

_  (ircat  Britain  is  now  (1885)  going  through  one  of  those  ex- 
citing periods,  which  have  so  often  been  predicted  as  full  of 
peril  to  her  institutions.  A  great  extension  of  the  suffrage, 
amounting  to  2,000,000  of  new  voters  has  been  made;  and 
during  the  debates  angry  partizans  even  urged  the  sweeping 


CHAP.  XI.  THE  OLD  WOELD  FROM   1819  TO  1885.  615 

away  of  the  House  of  Lords.     But  a  compromise  was  effected 
between  the  extremists. 

Spain. 

The  "  Spanish  marriages  "make  trouble  between  Spain  and 
England,  1846;  diplomatic  relations  restored  1850.  In  the 
next  year  Spain  was  ruled  out  of  the  European  bourses. 
1851  the  Queen  wounded  by  a  Franciscan.  1854  the  Queen's 
mother  forced  to  quit  Spain.  From  1855  to  1858,  almost 
continual  revolutions.  In  1860,  the  Moors  were  defeated  at 
Guad-el-ras,  and  mulcted  m  a  large  sum.  In  1863  has  a 
rupture  with  Peru,  and  gains  some  laurels  and  more  gold. 
Quarrels  with  Chili  (1865).  Emperor  Napoleon  visits  the 
Queen,  on  Sept.  9.  Admiral  Pareja  insults  Chili,  war  de- 
clared, and  Capt.  "Williams  captures  the  ships  of  Pareja  ,  who 
commits  suicide.  1866,  Prim's  unsuccesssful  insurrection 
ends.  Fifteenth  June,  the  war  in  Pacific  brought  to  a  close. 
In  1867  there  were  numerous  civil  outbreaks  which  were 
suppressed.  1868,  Spain  propose  to  settle  the  national  debt 
at  20  per  cent  of  its  face.  Prim  and  other  leaders  organize 
a  revolt,  and  the  Queen  flees  to  France.  In  1869  the  Cortes 
voted  for  a  monarch  to  supercede  the  provincial  govern- 
ment. Espartero  refuses  to  accept  the  offered  crown.  Prince 
Leopold  accepted  as  King,  biit  on  France  remonstrating  he 
resigns.  The  Carlists  cause  troubles  in  Navarre.  Amadeua 
(of  Sardinia),  is  declared  King.  Prim  assassinated  by  six 
men  (1870).  In  1872  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  the 
King  and  Queen,  1873,  several  Carlist  bands  put  to  route  by 
the  King's  troops;  King  Amadeiis  resigns,  alleging  the  im- 
possibility of  restoring  trauqiiility  in  Spain;  Castelar  became 
dictator,  but  is  out  voted  in  the  Cortes  and  resign.  Conflicts 
take  place  almost  dailj'  between  Carlists,  Republicans,  and 
Intranslgentes,  without  decisive  results.  Meanwhile  the 
people  are  great  sufferers,  1874,  Spain  has  been  afliicted  with 
her  chronic  troubles,  ruler  has  followed  ruler;  the  last  being 
less  liked  than  the  preceding.  An  act  of  jiistico  was  done  in 
1883,  when  40,000  slaves  were  fully  liberated,  the  official  act 
not  being  legally  performed  in  1870, 

The  Spanish  Ministry  early  in  1884,  under  a  vote  of  censure 
carried  by  221  to  126,  were  forced  to  resign.  Sagasta  ex- 
pected to  become  Premier,  but  the  King  passed  him  over  and 
appointed  Canovas  del  Castillo  with  a  Conservative  Ministry. 
The  Ministry  have  displayed  unwonted  activity  in  making  pro- 
posals for  commercial  treaties  with  the  United  States,  Great 
liritain  and  other  countries.  Great  turmoil  exists  among  all 
the  ancient  univerisities  in  consequence  (as  alleged)  of  the 
government  intefering  with  their  vested  rights  and  liberties.  .. 
Usually  it  is  the  army  that  rebels;  but  now  it  is  the  educated 


glG  HISTOEY  OF  THK  WORLD.  PAET  UL 

civilians.     Trade  lias  been  greatly  interfered  with  in  conse- 
quence of  the  strict  quarantine  ke^Dt  up  against  the  cholera. 

Purtugal. 

This  kingdom  was  continuously  in  the  throes  of  revolu- 
tions through  the  period  from  1840  to  1860.  It  would  be  a 
mere  catalogue  of  names  to  say  who  ruled  and  who  was  ban- 
ished. In  18G5  attention  was  called  to  Lisbon,  from  the 
forts  firing  on  two  United  States  men  of  war;  explanations 
followed,  and  peace  prevailed.  In  1865-6  affairs  were  so 
calm  that  the  King  and  Queen  visited  several  foreign  capitals. 
Insurrections  followed  insurrections  down  to  1879;  in  the 
next  year,  signs  of  amity  and  fraternity  appeared  when  a 
national  celebration  took  place  in  honor  of  Camoeus  and 
Nasco  de  Gama.  In  1881,  after  an  animated  discussion  in 
the  Chambers  about  a  treaty  with  England,  the  Ministry  re- 
signed, and  Sampayo  took  direction  of  affairs  (1881).  During 
1883-4,  Portugal  has  taken  an  active  part  in  preventing  the 
German  and  other  European  powers  from  interfering  with 
the  territorial  and  trading  rights  claimed  by  her  on  the  Afri- 
can coasts  and  rivers. 

Italy. 

In  1859  nearly  all  the  States  of  Italy  rose  against  Austria 
and  their  native  princes;  the  King  of  Sardinia  (I860)  was  the 
popular  leader,  and  aiding  the  people,  was  after  some  re- 
verses virtually  the  new  ruler  of  Italy,  by  almost  universal 
acclamation.  Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded  to  France.  Gari- 
baldi threw  his  sword  into  the  balance  which  brought  Naples 
into  the  new  kingdom.  In  1861  most  of  the  European 
powei's  recognized  the  Sardinian  dynastj\  Garibaldi,  in  1862 
endeavors  to  capture  Eome  by  arms,  but  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  royal  forces,  at  Aspromonte.  Through  many  years 
brigandage  prevailed  to  a  great  extent,  assuming  something 
of  a  poUtical  reactionary  character.  In  1866  war  was  declared 
against  Austria.     After  several  conflicst,   in  which  neither 

Earty  gained  decisive  victories,  peace  was  made  at  Vienna. 
1 1870  Rome  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  was 
declared  its  capitol.  In  1873  the  Jesuits  were  expelled. 
Jan.  9,  1878,  Victor  Emanual,  the  first  King  of  United  Italy, 
died  at  Rome,  and  was  buried  in  the  Pantheon.  Pope  Pius 
IX. ,  died  on  Feb.  7.  LeoXIIL,  succeeded  to  the  papacy.  Italy 
displayed  great  enterjjrise  in  building  huge  iron-clads,  and 
experiments  with  armored  forts.  During  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war,  Italy  remained  neutral  although  efforts  -were  made 
by  strong  parties  to  induce  a  declaration  in  favor  of  one 
of  the  parties.  In  1878,  Hiambert  I.,  succeeded  his  father; 
being  exceedingly  popular  on  account  of  his  uniform  good 


CHAP.  XI.  THE  OLD  WORLD  FEOM  1849  TO  1885.  617 

sense,  and  moderation  in  all  things.  A  vigorous  party  -war  is 
kept  up  by  a  large  section  of  the  people  (Itaha  Irredenta)  in 
favor  of  having  Trieste  and  other  places,  now  ruled  by  Aus- 
tria, annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  1881,  Garibaldi 
and  his  son  Menotti  resigned  as  deputies,  on  a  personal 
matter.  The  Italian  Government  passed  a  reform  bill,  giv- 
ing a  vote  to  everyone  capable  of  reading  and  writing.  In 
spite  of  Condons  and  guarantees  th«  cholera  passed  the 
frontier,  from  France  to  Italy,  and  carried  off  great  numbers. 
The  fatality  was  particularly  severe  in  Naples,  when  the 
poor  gave  little  heed  to  sanitary  preventives. 

The  financial  situation  of  Italy  is  becoming  more  stable 
with  every  advancing  year,  and  the  condition  of  the  people 
more  prosperous.  The  Ministry  have  had  a  secure  support 
from  the  Chambers.  The  Government  has  secured  some 
additional  concessions  for  colonial  development  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  lied  Sea  and  are  casting  hungry  ej-es  in 
the  direction  of  Abyssinia.  Commercial  extension  is  now 
the  besetting  weakness  of  Europe,  and  Italy,  which  is  always 
sensitive  respecting  its  position  as  one  of  the  great  Powers, 
is  moving  in  the  same  fiirection  and  is  inclined  to  look  favor- 
ably upon  an  Enghsh  alliance. 

Germany  and  Prussia. 

In  1850,  by  the  treaty  of  Munich,  Austria,  Bavaria,  Saxony 
and  Wurtemberg,  agree  to  sustain  the  German  Union,  in  same 
year  an  attempt  is  made  to  assassinate  the  King.  In  1858  the 
Prince  Frederick  William  marries  the  Princess  Royal,  of  Eng- 
land. William  I.,  becomes  King  (1861),  on  the  death  of  Frede- 
rick William  lY.  The  student,  Becker,  attempts  to  assassinate 
the  King.  In  18C2  Coimt  Bismarck  becomes  prime  mirdster. 
In  1800,  the  Austrians  are  totally  defeated  at  Sadowa,  and  soon 
after  several  minor  battles  were  won  by  the  Prussians,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  North  German  Confederation  of 
States,  with  Prussia  at  the  head.  Schles-^ig  and  Holstein  are 
made  part  of  the  Prussian  Kingdom.  As  Napoleon  so  violently 
objects  to  Leopold  becoming  King  of  Spain,  the  Prince  retires 
from  being  a  candidate.  Napoleon  requires  ^n^'^rantees  from 
the  King,  that  the  idea  of  Leopold's  claims  will  be  renounced. 
Prussia  gives  the  French  ambassador  his  conge,  upon  which 
Napoleon  declares  war  aginst  Pnissia.  After  a  number  of 
great  battles,  Prussia  is  ultimately  successful.  Napoleon  sur- 
renders himself  and  his  army,  and  leaves  the  road  open  to 
Paris.  _  After  very  hard  fighting  the  King  of  Prussia  enters 
Paris  witli  detachments  of  all  his  army  corps,  and  is  there 
cro\\-nod  Emperor  of  Germany.  Upon  the  rotum  of  the  Ger- 
mans to  Berhn,  loaded  with  honors  and  money,  ]5ismark,  the 
head  of  the  cabinet,  applied  himself  to  the  settlement  of  inter- 


618  HISTOET  OF  THE  WOBLD.  PABT  HI. 

nal  difficnlties,  sucli  as  the  "  socialistic "  and  "Catholic 
Bishops  "  questions,  which  showed  no  signs  of  being  perma- 
nently adjusted  up  to  1881. 

Prince  Bismarck  returned  resolutions  eulogistic  of  Lasker 
through  the  Minister  at  Washington. 

In  Prussian  Diet  (1883),  the  Emperor  said  the  financial 
situation  had  improved,  and  that  the  railroads  were  accumulat- 
ing money. 

Tlie  German  Chancellor  has  entered  during  1884  upon  a  new 
pohcy  of  colonial  extension  and  has  displayed  his  characteris- 
tic energy  in  following  it  out.  He  first  established  a  claim  to 
Angra  Peqtiena,  on  the  West  African  coast,  and  after  a  pro- 
longed correspondence  with  Lord  Granville  has  secured  the 
annexation  of  a  long  strip  of  coast.  In  the  German  Parlia- 
ment he  has  defended  this  pohcy  on  the  broad  ground  that 
protection  is  due  to  colonists  wherever  they  may  be  and  no 
matter  how  few  may  be  their  number  nor  how  inconsiderable 
their  resoiirces.  He  protested  against  England's  treaty  with 
Portugal  respecting  the  lower  Congo,  and  summoned  to  Berlin 
an  International  Cotmcil  to  determine  tho  future  of  vast  areas 
of  Central  Africa.  This  Conference  has  defined  the  Congo 
basin  as  including  2,000,000  miles  of  territory  tinder  the  con- 
trol of  an  International  Commission,  and  has  empowered  Eng- 
land to  control  the  lower  Ivfeger  and  France  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  river.  Most  of  the  other  European  powers,  have  taken 
active  steps  to  gain  a  share  of  the  rich  trade  supposed  to  be 
placed  within  reach,  by  the  opening  up  of  the  immense  coun- 
tries of  Interior  Africa.  Whether  these  golden  dreams  are  to  be 
satisfied  is  yet  a  problem.  But  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  here 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  but  for  the  sacrifices  of  the 
far-seeing  sohtary  traveler,  Livingston,  wise  statesmen  and 
crafty  merchants  would  never  have  known  anything  of  the  fer- 
tile lands  about  the  the  sources  of  the  Nile  and  Niger.  Prince 
Bismarck's  closing  achievement  in  the  year  is  the  annexation 
of  a  portion  of  New  Guinea  and  two  adjacent  islands  in  the 
South  Seas — a  step  which  has  caused  alarm  in  Australia  and  ir- 
ritation in  England. 

To  commemmorate  the  Tinion  and  victories  of  the  Germans, 
in  their  last  great  wars,  a  magnificent  coUossal  monument  was 
erected  at  Niederwald,  on  the  Bhine.  The  opening  celebra- 
tion was  attended  by  many  of  the  most  famous  people  of  the 
emiDire,  and  detachments  from  the  brave  regiments  who  had 
won  the  famous  battles.  All  went  off  smoothly.  But  this  gala 
assemblage  was  standing  over  a  possible  earthquake.  For 
Eeinsdorf,  Keechler,  Lengen  and  Eupsch,  avowed  anarchists, 
had  contrived  a  plot  to  blow  up  monument  and  assemblage  in 
one  ruin.     It  was  months  after  before  this  was  known,  and  the 


CHAP.  XI.  THE  OLD  WOELD  FEOM  1849  TO  1885.  619 

circumstances  were  only  made  public  at  tlie  trial  of  the  dyna- 
miters at  Leipsic,  Dec,  1884. 

Holland. 

In  184G,  after  the  death  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  the  es-Kinj^  ol 
Holland,  and  the  abdication  of  William  I.,  King  William  II., 
granttal  a  new  Constitution,  and  re-established  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy.  In  IBHl  and  18(52,  great  inundations  and 
fires  swejit  through  the  country.  Slavery  was  abolished  in 
their  W.  I.  Islands,  in  1862.  Angry  feelings  between  Franco 
and  Germany  respecting  the  fortifications  of  Luxemburg;  in 
consequence  they  were  razed.  In  1870,  a  strict  neutrality 
was  observed  duiing  the  German-French  war.  In  1873  an 
exijcdition  sailed  against  the  Achinese,  of  Sumatra.  The 
opening  of  canal  between  the  North  Sea  and  Amsterdam  was 
celebrated.  In  1878,  the  King's  brother  married  the  Princess 
Marie  Elizabeth,  of  Prussia.  The  bridegroom  died  in  Jan.  of 
the  next  year  (1879).  In  1883-4,  the  King  of  Holland  took 
the  initiative  in  endeavoring  to  introduce  civilization  into 
Africa. 

Belgium. 

After  Holland  had  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Bel- 
gium, Queen  Victoria  visited  the  New  Kingdom,  she  being  the 
niece  of  Leopold.  Much  illfeeling  is  sho-mi  between  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  particularly  upon  the  subject  of 
education.  Belgium  took  no  part  in  the  Italian  wars.  In  1859 
an  heir  to  the  cro^\^^  was  born,  and  loud  avowals  of  fidelity  to 
tho  throne,  were  expressed  by  the  people.  In  lS(')l-2,  com- 
mercial treaties  of  importance  were  entered  into  with  France 
and  England.  Grave  apprehensions  were  felt  for  the  King's 
health.  Leopold  I. ,  died  on  the  10th,  Dec.  18G5.  He  was  im- 
mediately succeeded  by  his  son  Leopold  II.  In  18G6,  some 
2, 000  English  volunteers  with  the  Lord  Mayor,  of  London, 
visited  Brussels,  and  the  visit  was  returned  in  18G7,  by  2,400 
Belgians,  who  were  grandly  received  in  England.  After  the 
battle  of  Sedan,  many  of  the  defeated  rrcnoh  soldiers  entered 
Belgium.  In  1873,  the  Czar  of  Eussia  visited  Belgium.  In 
,1876,  much  rioting,  growing  out  of  Catholic  success  in  tho  elec- 
tions. A  great  permanent  national  exhibition  was  opened  at 
Brussels  (1880). 

In  1884,  the  Liberals  were  defeated  at  the  general  elections, 
and  a  Reactionary  Ministry  was  formed.  An  educational  law 
was  speedily  passed  conferring  special  privileges  ui^on  clerical 
tutors.  This  law  was  proni])tly  sanctioned  by  the  King  not- 
withstanding tho  turbulent  demonstrations  of  the  Brussels  and 
Antwerp  mobs. 


G20  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD.  PART  IH. 

By  tho  death  of  tho  Princo  of  Orange  (June  21),  Princess 
■Wilhelmina,  ago  four,  lias  become  heir  presumptive  to  the 
throne.  She  cannot  inherit  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg 
to  vhitih  tho  succession  is  regulated  by  the  German  law. 
Special  provisions  for  a  regency  and  for  the  succession  to  the 
Duchy  have  accordingly  been  made  by  the  Crown  and  the 
Legislature. 

Austria. 

In  1853,  Libenj*!  was  executed  for  an  attempt  to  assassinate 
the  Emperor.  In  the  following  years  the  Italians  succeed  in 
freeing  themselves  from  the  Austrian  dominion.  In  1864, 
Austria  combined  vith  Prussia  in  a  war  on  Denmark.  Aus- 
trian-Poland revolted,  and  was  with  difficulty  quelled.  In 
18G(),  force  having  failed,  attempts  are  made  to  conciliate  Hun- 
gary, by  granting  concessions.  After  some  successes  the  Au3- 
trians  were  compelled  to  evacuate  Italy  by  the  Itahans  and 
Prussians.  They  made  peace  with  Prussia  and  Italy,  and  sur- 
rended  the  '  'Iron  Cro^vn, "  to  the  latter.  The  dissatisfaction  be- 
tween the  various  nationalities  of  the  empire  were  partially 
ended  by  giving  seperate  administrations  to  them.  In  187^, 
the  Emperor  meets  Emperor  of  Prussia  and  other  rulers  at  Ber" 
hii.  Many  popular  reforms  were  granted.  In  1874,  the  Em- 
peror visitecl  St.  Petersburg.  The  Pope  condemns  new  church 
laws,  and  both  parties  cry  for  ' '  a  free  church  in  a  free  land. " 
The  course  of  the  Danube  is  artificially  changed  (1875).  Aus- 
trian soldiers  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herzegoviuia,  and  a  w.ir  en- 
sued. The  silver  wedding  of  the  Emperor  and  Empress  was 
kepton  the  24th  of  April,  1879.  During  1883-4,  there  were 
violent  persecutions  of  the  Jews  in  the  Austrian  Empire,  partic- 
ularly in  Hungary.  In  Hungary  the  reform  of  the  Upper 
House  has  been  undertaken  as  a  Government  measure.  The 
rejection  of  the  bill  for  legalizing  marriages  between  Chris- 
tians and  Jews  after  it  had  jiassed  the  popular  Chamber  seemed 
to  render  this  action  indispensable,  and  the  Emperor  proposed 
a  reform  measure  in  his  speech  from  the  throne  in  October. 
Tho  Government's  plan  gives  the  balance  ef  power  to  the  Em- 
peror's candidates  and  reconstitutes  the  House  so  that  it  wiU 
consist  of  hereditary  peers  owning  at  least  $15,000  in  land,  of 
ecclesiastical  and  other  functionaries  and  of  life-peers,  the 
latter  forming  one-third  of  the  entire  body. 

Russia. 

In  1851,  Nicholas,  who  pressed  forward  internal  improve- 
ments, saw  the  railway  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  be- 
gim.  Quakers  visit  the  Emperor  in  the  interest  of  universal 
peace.      1855,  Nicholas  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 


CHAP.  SX  THE   OLD  WOELD   FOEM   1849   TO  1885.  621 

Alexander  II.  A  treaty  of  peace  -was  signed  at  Taris,  1856.  In 
1857,  Alexander  had  personal  interviews  with  the  Emperors  of 
France  and  Austria.  18G1,  a  new  treaty  of  comruerco  was 
made  with  China,  and  same  year  it  was  decreed  that  23, 000,- 
000  of  serfs  should  bo  emancipated  in  the  coiirse  of  the  com- 
ing two  years.  18G2,  the  l,0U0th  anniversary  of  founding  of 
Kussian  monarchy  was  celebrated.  At  this  time  efforts  were 
made  to  improve  the  methods  in  courts  of  law.  In  18G4  the 
war  viith.  the  Circassians  ended.  Kara  Eozow  executed  for  at- 
tempted assassination  of  the  Czar. 

Russian  America  (Alaska),  sold  to  United  States  for  $7,000,- 
000.  A  second  attempt  made  to  assassinate  the  Czar,  by  Bere- 
zowski,  a  Pole.  General  Kaufman  takes  Samarcaud  (18G8). 
Sociahstic  conspiracy  detected,  the  informer  assassinated.  1871 
electric  telegraph  established  between  St.  Petersburg  and 
Japan.  1872,  reconnoiteriug  around  Khiva,  in  1873  Kuiva 
taken  by  the  Russians.  In  1875  a  commercial  panic  prevailed  in 
banking  circles,  in  Moscow,  Prague  and  Berlin.  In  187G  Kho- 
land  was  formally  annexed.  In  1877  began  the  Paissia  Tur- 
kish war.  Through  1878,  1879,  1880,  almost  every  week  saw 
some  new  Nihilist  attempt  to  overturn  the  government,  assassi- 
nation being  generally  the  mode  attempted.  In  1881  Alexan- 
der II.  was  assassinated  by  pieces  of  a  bomb,  by  the  exjilosion 
of  which  the  assassin  was  likewise  killed.  Tlie'^NihiHst  execu- 
tive committee,  in  a  manifesto,  oifered  a  cessation  of  hostilities 
if  certain  reforms  were  iuaugiurated.  The  answer  was  given  by 
the  execution  of  six  of  the  conspirators.  In  1881  repression 
policy  was  continued. 

A  treaty  between  Russia  and  China  was  ratified,  the  latter 
giving  the  Kooldja  frontier,  and  paying  indemnity.  To  the 
close  of  188-4,  constant  unsuccessful  nihilistic  attempts  were 
made  to  destroy  the  Emperor  by  dynamite.  Tlie  Government 
has  persevered  in  its  reactionary  policy  and  has  not  made  any 
effort  to  conciliate  the  disaffected  classes.  The  Russian  press 
is  RuV>jected  to  rigorous  discipline  and  public  opinion  is  every- 
where stifled  and  suppressed.  Externally  the  position  of  the 
countrj'  has  been  improved  during  the  year.  Visits  have  been 
exchanged  between  the  Russian  and  German  courts  and 
diplomatic  relations  are  now  on  a  most  cordial  footing. 
In  February  the  Turcoman  tribes  occupying  the  oasis 
of  Mcrv  submitted  to  the  Czar.  This  brought  the  Russian 
arms  within  250  miles  of  Herat,  in  Western  Afghanistan,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year  a  closer  ajjin-oach  was  made  and  it  is  now 
aunouucod  (18,s5),  that  the  tribes  about  Herat  have  acknow- 
ledged tho  Russian  supremacy. 


622  histohy  of  the  woeld.  pabt  m. 


Sweden  and  Norway. 

In  1844,  upou  the  death  of  Charles  John,  Oscar  I.  became 
Kiuf^,  when  an  honorable  alliance  was  entered  into  with  Eng- 
land. In  1S04,  after  treaties  of  commerce  had  for  a  time  exist- 
ed with  leading  nations,  free  trade  became  the  policy  of  the 
country.  Protests  uselessly  against  the  incorporation  of 
Sleswig.  King  Oscar  visits  England,  and  is  very  well  received. 
The  king  and  queen  were  cro^vned  in  1873.  The  king  and 
queen  visit  Copenhagen  and  Berlin.  In  1875  the  Ministry  had 
JDr.Forssellfor  premier.  The  King's  health  failing  he  visited 
Bournemouth,  England,  for  his  health,  in  the  May  of  1881. 
Up  to  tlie  present  time  (1885),  for  the  last  three  years  Sweden 
has  continued  in  a  quiet  prosperous  career,  gradually  extend- 
ing her  foreign  trade,  and  increasing  her  manufactures.  The 
present  reigning  King  Oscar  and  his  family  are  well-liked  by 
the  people. 

Turkey. 

In  1849,  Christians  were  first  allowed  to  hold  office;  the 
Turks  refused  to  give  up  the  Hungarian  and  polish  refugees  at 
the  demand  of  Austria  and  Russia.  In  1851,  Crotia  broke  out 
in  Rebellion.  The  Eussian  army  crossed  the  Pruth  in  1853, 
ui5on  which  Turkey  declared  war  against  Eussia.  Greece  as- 
sisted Eussia,  but  was  compelled  to  remain  neutral,  by  Eng- 
land and  France.  In  1854  the  Eussians  withdrew  from  the 
principalities  and  peace  ensued;  the  integrity  of  Turkey's 
territory  was  guaranteed  by  Austria,  France  and  England. 
In  1858,  many  Cristians  were  massacred  at  Jedda.  The  first 
Turkish  railroad  was  opened  this  year.  1859  saw  a  terrible 
fire  in  Constantinople,  a  conspiracy  against  the  sultan,  and 
alleged  illtreatment  of  Christians.  In  1861,  the  sultan  Abdul- 
]\Iedjid  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Abdul-Aziz. 
In  18G8  the  property  of  the  Mosques  was  taken  for  secular 
piirposes.  The  Sultan  visited  Egypt  in  1863.  In  1864  large 
numbers  of  Mahomedan  Circassians  removed  to  Turkey.  In 
1865,  cholera  raged  so  that  50,000  deaths  occurred.  In  1866 
and  1867,  European  Turkey  was  much  agitated,  the  Sultan 
visited  London  and  other  cities,  returning  to  Constantinople 
on  7th  of  August.  1869  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  was  blamed 
for  assuming  Kingly  powers,  the  Suez  canal  was  formally 
opened  in  presence  of  manj^  illustrious  persons,  including 
Empress  Eugenie.  The  Sultan  deposed,  and  Murad  aj^ijoint- 
ed  in  his  stead  to  the  peoples  great  joy.  Murad  was  deposed 
on  account  of  ill  health,  and  his  brother,  Abdul -Hamid,  was 
proclaimed.  For  many  years  Turkey  continued  almost  single 
handed  to  fight  Eussia.  But  in  1878  peace  was  declared  be- 
tween the  two  nations.      In  1881,  Midhat  Pacha  and  others 


CHAP.  Xn.  THE   NEW  'WOELD   FEOM   1819  TO  1885.  625 

•were  tried  for  the  murder  of  the  late  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  all 
the  principals  were  convicted  and  sentended  to  death,  but 
the  execution  was  postponed.  There  existed  in  1881  much 
dissatisfaction  in  Turkey  in  relation  to  the  way  in  whicb 
Enp;land  and  France  assume  to  manage  affairs  in  Egj'pt,  aj 
the  Sultan  claims  sovereign  rights  over  the  Khedive. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

DEATH  OF  PBESLDENT  TAYLOR  TO  ELECTION   OF   PBESIDENT 

CLEVELAND. 

THE    NEW   WOELD    EEOM    ISl'J    TO    1885. 

Brazil. 

Beaztl,  after  going  through  the  violent  governmental  com- 
motions  incidental  to  the  Republics  of  the  South,  settled 
down  to  a  state  of  quiet  at  home  about  1865.  Then  a  fierce 
and  long  war  began  between  it  and  Paraguay.  This  war  con- 
tinued until  theParaguayans  under  their  dictator  Lopez,  were 
totally  defeated  at  Villeta  (18G8).  In  1870,  Lopez  was  killed 
at  the  fight  of  Aquidaban.  The  Emperor  and  Empress  visited 
Europe,  taking  great  interest  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  arts 
and  manufactures.  After  their  return  gradual  slave  emanci- 
pation was  decreed  (1872).  In  1871,  a  band  of  German  set- 
tlers, known  as  "Mucker,"  inflamed  by  the  teadings  of  a 
woman  who  claimed  to  be  a  female  Christ,  attempted  the  for- 
cible conversion  of  their  neighbors.  They  were  only  sub- 
dued after  severe  fighting,  in  which  troops  had  to  be  brought 
against  them.  In  1875  there  were  many  bank  failures,  that 
for  a  time  prostrated  business.  The  Emperor  Dom  Pedro  II., 
and  his  Empress,  were  present  at  the  opening  of  the  Centen- 
nial Exhibition  in  Philadelphia,  Both  these  distinguished 
persons  are  far  above  the  average  in  sterling  qualities  of 
mind  and  heart.  They  returned  to  I5razil  in  1877.  1877  Bra- 
zil has  shown  a  degree  of  entei-jirize  and  stability  that  the 
neighboring  republics  mi'^ht  well  imitate.  She  has  a  well- 
drilled  standing  army  of  2(),0UIJ  men,  aud  can  call  out  a  re- 
serve force  of  000,000.  Her  navy,  manned  by  nearly  10,000 
men,  includes  several  first  class  ironclads.      Her  exports  of 


gjg  HISTOET  OF  THE  "WOELD.  PABT  m. 

valuable  articles  are  continually  increasing.  Through  the 
enlightened  action  of  the  government  education  is  being  dif- 
fused, science  encouraged,  railroads  built,  and  many  steamers 
navigate  the  great  river  Amazon.  On  the  banks  of  this  stream 
good  coal  has  been  discovered.  Her  revenue  is  so  large  that 
in  1876,  there  was  a  surplus  over  expenditures  of  $i,  000, 000. 
Her  exports  of  hides,  coffee,  cotton  and  other  valuable  arti- 
cles are  enormous. 

South  America.— Argentine  Republic. 

This  is  one  of  the  states  originally  forming  the  confedera- 
tion of  South  America.  Buenos  Ayres,  after  a  secession  lasting 
several  years,  returned  in  1859.  An  insiirrection  in  San 
Juan,  was  suppressed,  after  two  years  in  1862.  J.  Urquiza,  re- 
mained president  from  1853  to  1862,  when  he  was  succeeded 
bj"^  Bartholomew  Mitre.  In  1865  the  Argentine  Kepublic  unit- 
ed with  Brazil,  and  Uruguay  in  a  defensive  alliance  against 
Paraguay.  In  1868,  Dominique  F.  Sarmiento,  became  presi- 
dent. He  piit  down  an  insurrection  led  by  Corrientes.  In 
1870  Urquiza^  a  former  president,  was  murdered.  In  1873  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  with  Brazil.  In  the  same  year  Lojjez 
Jourdan  incited  a  rebellion,  which  was  not  finally  suppressed 
until  1876,  when  Jourdan  was  captured.  In  1876  the  na- 
tional bank  suspended  specie  payment.  In  1880  the  old 
quarrel  for  suj^remacy  between  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  other 
provinces  again  broke  out,  but  Gen.  Boca,  becoming  jiresi- 
dent,  the  jiretensions  of  the  dissatisfied  district  were  nega- 
tived, and  peace  was  restored.  But  it  was  decided  that 
Buenos  Ayres  should  be  the  capital  of  the  Eepublic. 

The  Eepublic  has  an  area  as  great  as  all  Central  and  Western 
Europe  combined  (about  1,619,500  square  miles),  and  a  popu- 
lation of  1,768,681  by  census  of  1869,  now  estimated  at  2,500,- 
000.  It  aboimds  in  remarkably  fertile  plains,  called  pampas, 
with  rich  alluvial  soil  four  or  five  feet  thick,  formed  by  decay 
of  luxurious  vegetation. 

It  consists  of  14  provinces:  the  province  of  Buenos  Aj^res  is 
the  most  populous,  having  over  half  a  million  population,  vnth. 
a  capital  city —Buenos  Ayres— of  200, 000  estimated  for  1878. 
The  vast  extent  of  Indian  country  is  very  sparsely  popiilated. 
The  population  of  Buenos  Ajtcs  and  the  riverine  provinces  is 
largely  European,  and  immigration  has  increased  enormously 
of  late  years,  attracted  by  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  jiros- 
perity  and  free  institutions  of  the  Republic. 

Eminently  a  pastoral  country,  with  about  18  million  horned 
cattle,  and  100  million  sheep,  the  exports  are  largely  of  wool, 
hides,  and  tallow.  The  premium  on  gold  varied  from  30  to  33 
per  cent,  in  1878.      The  exports  in  1881  were  $56,497,423,  and 


CHAP.  xn.        THE  NEW  WOBLD  FROM  184:9  TO  1885.  627 

the  imports  $54,029,545.  Twelve  lines  of  steamers  run  to 
Europe,  the  jiassage  occupjTJig  29  days.  The  IlepubHc  has 
nearly  1600  miles  of  railway,  and  10,000  miles  of  telegraph,  be- 
sides an  Atlantic  cable  communicating  with  London. 

The  revenue  for  1881  was  ^24,349,450,  derived  almost  wholly 
from  import  and  export  duties.  The  expenditure  in  1881  was 
$26,747,480,  and  the  total  national  debt  .$107,681,639. 

The  government  is  a  Federal  RepubUc,  modelled  on  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  except  that  the  ministry  is  re- 
sponsible to  Congress,  an  adverse  vote  in  the  Senate  and  House 
leading  to  the  formation  of  a  new  Cabinet.  The  laws  are  the 
same  for  all,  native  or  foreign ;  immigrants  are  free  to  natura- 
lize themselves  as  Argentines  or  to  maintain  their  foreign 
nationality. 

Paraguay. 

An  inland  republic  of  South  America — area  91,980  square 
miles,  population  in  1876,  293,844 — is  a  country  without  cities 
and  almost  without  civilization.  The  language  spoken  is 
chiefly  that  of  the  Indians  mixed  with  a  little  Spanish.  The 
country  achieved  independence  in  1811,  and  was  ruled  by 
the  dictator,  Dr.  Francia,  for  29  years,  during  which  no  for- 
eigners were  allowed  to  enter  or  leave  Paraguaj'. 

It  was  recognized  as  a  seperate  State,  bj'  the  Argentine 
Confederation  in  the  year  18.32,  and  in  the  following  year  by 
Great  liritain.  Francis  S.  Lopez,  became  president  in  1862.  A 
Brazilian  steamer  being  fired  at  on  the  River  Paraguay  led  to 
a  war  between  Brazil  and  Paraguaj-;  when  Lopez  quickly  in- 
vaded the  Brazihan  territory,  and  also  that  of  the  Argentine 
EepubUc,  which  formed  an  alliance  with  Brazil,  to  repel  the 
invader.  The  Paraguay  army  was  defeated,  when  a  provi- 
sional government  w'as  formed.  Lojiez  again  met  the  allied 
armies  and  met  with  a  signal  defeat;  he  fled,  was  proclaimed 
an  outlaw  and  finally  killed  near  the  Aquidaban  in  1870.  Im- 
mediately after  peace  was  signed  with  the  two  belligerent 
Republics.  In  1871,  Salvador  Jovellanos  was  elected  presi- 
dent for  three  years.  In  1874,  Juan  Bautista  Gill  became 
president,  and  in  1877,  both  the  president  and  his  brother 
were  assassinated.  In  the  same  year  Higinio  Uriarte  becajne 
president,  and  was  succeeded  in  1878,  by  Candido  Bareiro 
whose  term  expired  in  1882. 

Since  1870  the  government,  though  nominally  republican, 
has  been  under  the  control  of  Brazil.  The  country  is  hope- 
lessly insolvent,  owing  $236,000,000  to  Brazil  and  the  other 
allies  as  a  legacy  of  the  war,  $9,000,000  to  Great  Britain,  and 
$2100,000  domestic  debt,  amounting  altogether  to  more  than 
the  total  value  of  the  country,  real  and  personal.      The  only 


628  HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  PART  IH. 

railway  in  Paraf(iiay  is  one  of  45  miles,  and  the  only  telegraph 
is  of  the  same  length. 

Uruguaii. 

(Band  OrientaleX  In  1856  G.  A.  Pereyra  Ijecame  president, 
and  in  18G0  he  was  succeeded  by  B.  P.  Berro.  Civil  war 
broke  out  in  18G3,  because  of  an  invasion  headed  by  an  ex- 
president.  Gen.  Venancio  Flores,  who  advanced  upon  the 
capitol,  and  became  president  pro  tem.  In  1866,  F.  A.  Vidal 
was  elected  president.  Berro  led  an  insurrection  of  the 
Blanco  partizans  at  Montevideo,  in  course  of  which  Flores 
was  assassinated.  The  insurrection  was  shortly  put  down, 
and  the  leader,  Berro,  shot  (1868).  Lorenzo  Battle  became 
president  in  this  year.  1875  saw  another  outbreak,  the  gov- 
ernment was  overthrown  by  a  revolution  in  Montevideo, 
when  Pedro  Yarela  became  president.  Col.  J.  Latorre 
reached  the  presidency  in  1876,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  F. 
A.  Vidal,  elected  in  1880. 

Uruguay  has  an  area  of  72,151  square  miles,  population,  1877, 
4-47,000  (estimated) — is  governed  bj'  a  President,  a  ministry 
of  4  cabinet  officers,  and  a  legislati;re  composed  of  13  Sena- 
tors and  40  Representatives.  The  revenue  in  1879  was  $8,- 
936,714,  three-fourths  of  which  was  from  customs  duties;  the 
eipenditures  $10, 090, 260,  nearly  half  of  which  was  for  the  army 
and  navy.  The  public  debt  in  1879  was  $47,861,042;  paper 
money  to  the  amount  of  $6,000,000  was  no  longer  current  in 
commerce,  thoiigh  received  by  the  government.  Payment 
of  interest  on  the  debt  has  been  lately  resumed. 

Colombia. 

This  Eepublic,  at  one  time  called  New  Granada  and  Vene- 
zuela, was  one  of  the  provinces  which  threw  off  allegiance 
to  Spain,  and  achieved  its  independence  under  Bolivar.  In 
1871,  General  E.  Salgar,  became  its  president,  succeeded 
every  two  years  by  the  f  ollo-wdng  presidents :  Manuel  Murillo 
Toro,  1872;  Santiago  Perez,  1874;  Aquileo  Parra,  1876;  Gen. 
Trujillo,  1878;  Gen.  E.  Nunez,  1880.  Little  affected  by  the 
above  list  of  presidents,  the  affairs  of  this  country  has  been 
keenly  watched  by  foreigners,  for  through  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  (formerly  called  Parana),  it  has  long  been  settled 
that  a  canal  would  be  cut  to  join  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
As  long  ago  as  1527  an  exploration  was  made  to  inquire  into  its 
practicability.  Since  that  period  every  decade  has  seen  the 
subject  taken  up  vnth.  more  or  less  spirit.  The  discovery  of 
gold  in  California  _  gave  it  afresh  impetus;  but  the  railroad 
across  the  Isthmus  in  part  did  away  with  its  necessitj'.  Still 
the  project  was  kept  alive.  The  enormous  mcrease  of  com- 
merce in  the  Pacific,  seeking  to  avoid  the  long  and  dangerous 


CHAP.  xn.  THE  NEW  WOELD  FEOit  18i9  TO  1885.  629 

passage  around  Cape  Horn,  called  loudly  for  this  short  and  safe 
route  to  the  Atlantic.  From  1850  to  1855,  no  less  than  seven 
distinct  formal  surveys  were  made  by  officers  of  the  United 
States  and  the  EngUsh  navy.  In  1858  the  first  train  ran 
througli  from  ocean  to  ocean.  From  this  time  until  1879,  near- 
ly twenty  extensive  and  expensive  surveys  were  made,  trying 
to  find  the  most  feasible  and  least  costly  routes,  until  Dc  Les- 
seps,  the  great  French  engineer  arrived.  With  characteristic 
rai^idity  and  energv',  he  set  hunself  to  work  to  do  what  others 
had  only  been  talking  and  writing  about.  De  Lesseps  scheme 
did  not  meet  with  approval  from  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, so  he  at  once  sailed  for  Europe.  Arriving  at  Liverpool, 
in  1880,  he  gave  a  detail  of  his  plan  for  a  canal  46  miles  long. 
From  thence  he  proceeded  to  Paris.  ^A  company  was  qiiickly 
formed,  money  was  advanced,  and  considering  the  magnitude 
of  the  amounts  required,  and  the  difficulties  to  be  surmounted, 
the  ujidertaking  has  been  successfully  pushed  forward  until 
1885  sees  a  vast  deal  of  the  work  accomplished. 

The  legislative  power  resides  in  a  Senate  of  27  members,  and 
a  Ilepresentative  Chamber  of  61,  elected  l)y  general  suffrage. 
The  executive  power  is  exercised  by  a  President  chosen  for 
two  years  by  the  people  of  the  different  States,  and  by  four 
ministers.  The  revenue  is  very  small,  amounting  in  1881  to 
only  $2,910,000,  two-thirds  of  which  was  from  customs.  The 
expenditure  was  $2,271,933  in  1879.  The  public  debt  amount- 
ed to  819,971,219  in  1879,  imports  in  1879  to  §19,787,634; 
exports,  $13,711,511. 

Peru. 

While  Gen.  J.  A.  Pozct,  was  president  (1863),  the 
Spaniards  seized  tlie  Chincha  Islands  (valuable  for  their  enor- 
mous deposits  of  guano),  and  announced  that  they  would  re- 
tain them  until  the  claims  of  Spaiu  were  satisfied.  A  congress 
of  representatives  from  Chili  and  other  South  American 
States  met  at  Lima  to  arrange  measures  for  mutual  defence 
against  European  powers.  This  firm  stand  apjDcared  to  have 
an  effect  upon  Spain,  for  the  Chincha  Islands  were  forthwith 
restored,  and  peace  was  made  with  the  Spaniards.  There  was 
a  revolution  against  Pezet,  in  1865,  and  several  provinces 
broke  off  from  the  Central  Government.  The  revolters  de- 
clared war  against  Spain,  and  caj^tured  Lima.  Canseco  be- 
came president  in  place  of  Pezet,  who  fied.  Peni  then  joined 
Chili,  and  they  declared  war  against  Sj^aiu.  The  Spaniards  in 
an  attemi^t  to  bombard  Callao  were  worsted,  and  retired  from 
Pern^^an  waters.  Soon  after  there  was  much  rioting  in  Lima, 
against  religious  toleration.  l^rado,  La  Puerta  an<l  P>alta  suc- 
ceeded each  other  as  president  in  one  year.     In  1868  the  whole 


630 


HISTOET  OP  THE  WOBLD.  PAST  m. 


country  was  disturbed  by  violent  earthquakes.  An  industrial 
exLibition  was  opened  at  Lima,  in  1872.  Thomas  Gutierrez 
made  liimself  dictator,  and  imprisoned  president  Balta;  the 
foreign  consuls  refused  to  recognize  him,  and  he  had  no  sup- 
port from  the  people;  he  ordered  Balta  to  be  shot,  but  was 
himself  seized  by  the  people,  and  hanged  from  a  lamp-post. 
Zavallos,  the  vice-president,  restored  order,  and  Prado  elected 
by  the  people  assumed  office.  In  1874  president  Prado  nar- 
rowly escaped  assassination.  Pierolas  with  some  6,000  men, 
endeavored  to  estabhsh  a  Southern  Confederacy  (1876),  he 
sailed  with  the  Huascar  iron  clad,  but  was  attacked  by  Admi- 
ral De  Horsey,  with  the  British  steamships  Shah  and  Ame- 
thyst, as  piratical,  for  attacking  mail-ships.  He  was  taken 
into  Lima.  The  Peruvians  resented  the  acts  of  the  British 
Admiral,  and  threatened  reprisals.  They  afterwards  appeal- 
ed to  the  great  powers,  while  the  British  endorsed  the  acts  of 
their  admiral.  In  1878  the  president  of  the  Senate  was 
assassinated  in  Lima.  Peru  and  BoUvia  declared  war  against 
Chih.  Anarchy  prevailed  in  Lima,  in  1881.  Pierolas,  with 
a  small  army,  declared  for  a  continuance  of  the  war.  But 
the  Chilian  forces  obtained  possession  of  the  capital,  and  soon 
after  had  nearly  the  whole  country  under  their  command.  A 
few  isolated  bands  in  outlying  regions  would  at  times  defy 
the  conquerors,  but  eventually  the  Chilians  •withdrew  their 
forces,  leaving  a  government  de  facto  to  bring  order  out  of 
the  pohtical  chaos.  Peru  is  very  rich  in  various  ores  and 
nitrates  of  great  commercial  value,  and  only  needs  a  stable 
government  to  recover  from  the  present  prostration. 

Chili. 

In  1856,  Manual  Montt  was  elected  president.  During  1859, 
an  insurrection  led  by  Pedro  Gallo  was  suppressed.  In  1803 
the  large  church  of  the  Jesuits,  in  the  city  of  Santiago  was 
burnt,  and  fully  2,000  persons  perished  in  the  smoke  and 
fiames.  The  islands  on  which  guano  was  found  in  quantity 
became  objects  of  great  interest,  in  consequence  of  its  value 
as  a  fertiUzer,  and  the  different  states  of  South  America,  to 
whose  shores  they  were  contiguous,  laid  claim  to  them  on  va- 
rious pretexts  more  or  less  valid.  Thus,  in  1864,  there  was  a 
rupture  of  friendly  relations  between  Chili  and  her  neighbor 
Bolivia,  growing  out  of  these  disputes.  In  1865,  an  act  toler- 
ating all  religions  was  promulgated.  In  1865,  while  J.  J. 
Perez  was  president,  the  Spanish  Admiral,  Pareja,  appeared 
before  the  port  of  Valparaiso,  and  demanded  satisfaction 
from  Chili,  alleging  that  she  interfered  with  Spain,  while  that 
power  was  at  war  with  Peru.  Receiving  no  satisfaction,  he 
proceeded  to  blockade  the  port.  Upon  which  Chili  declared 
war  against  Spain,  and  joined  Peru.  The  Spaniards  bom- 
barded Valparaiso  in  1866,  and  raised  the  blockade  after  a  few 


fj<jlY%:tW5.^ 


CHAP.  yn.         THE  NEW  WOBLD  FROM  1819  TO  1885.  633 

weeks.  F.  Erraziiriz  became  president  in  1871.  An  interna- 
tional exposition  %vas  opened  at  Santiago  in  1875.  As  Chili 
refused  to  recognize  a  treaty  that  had  been  made  between 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  two  years  before,  settling  Ijoundaries,  they 
declared  war  against  her.  In  this  war  Chili  began  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  naval  officers  of  other  nations  on  account 
of  the  excellent  seamanship  and  bravery  of  her  crews  and 
officers.  After  some  desperate  lighting,  in  which  the  Chilians 
had  only  wooden  ships  against  iron  ones,  the  Esmeralda 
(Chilian),  was  sunk  by  the  (Peruvian),  Huascar  ram  and  110 
perished  in  her.  Six  months  after  the  Huascar  w'as  captured 
by  the  Chilian  fleet,  after  a  very  stubborn  fight,  in  which  the 
admiral  and  many  other  officers  were  killed.  In  the  same 
year  the  combined  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  armies  were  de- 
feated, near  Iquique  and  soon  after  before  Tarapaca.  The 
Chilians  followed  up  their  successes,  and  displayed  energy 
and  skill  whenever  they  met  a  Peruvian  vessel  on  the  seas. 
Od  the  18th  of  Apiil  1880,  the  Chilian  fleet  appeared  before 
Callao  (the  port  of  Lima),  and  within  a  few  days  landed  and 
won  the  battles  of  Tacna  and  Arica.  Pierola  being  declared 
dictator  of  Peru,  proceeded  with  the  war.  A  levy  ea  masse 
was  called  for.  The  Chilian  transport  Loa  was  blown  up 
by  a  torjjedo  concealed  in  a  Peruvian  launch,  disguised  as  a 
fruit  boat.  The  explosion  greatly  shook  the  cit}'  of  Callao. 
The  Chilian  war  shi^j  Covadonga  was  sunk  oS  Chancay  by 
Peruvian  toqjedoes,  115  persons  perished.  The  Chilians 
made  some  harsh  reprisals.  The  Peruvians  were  beaten  near 
Chorillos,  and  without  further  resistance,  the  Chilians  entered 
and  occupied  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru.  Pierola  fled,  and 
Callao  soon  fell  to  the  Chilians.  The  Chilians  demanded  that 
the  terms  on  wdiich  peace  would  l)e  made,  were  a  cession  of  a 
certain  quantity  of  territory;  $750,0()0,(K)()  indemnity;  Callao 
to  remain  in  their  possession,  and  they  to  have  the  working 
of  certain  valuable  mines,  until  the  indemnity  was  jyaid. 
The  English  and  French  were  appealed  to  by  Peru,  to  effect 
a  modification  of  these  terms.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment made  efforts  to  bring  about  a  pacification.  The  Chilians 
retained  their  possessions  for  some  time,  but  eventually  a 
comparatively  staV)le  government  under  provisional  Presi- 
dent Inglisias  was  established  in  Lima,  and  peace  was  con- 
firmed in  March,  1881.  The  Chilians  making  some  abatement 
in  their  original  terms. 

Chili  has  of  late  years  shown  hergelf  the  most  lil)eral  and 
progressive  of  any  of  her  neighbors,  and  in  1S81,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  declared  in  an  official  document,  that 
she  possessed  the  finest  steamship  of  war  in  the  world;  the 
Esmeralda,  named  fiftor  one  of  her  best  fighting  vessels. 

Chili  has  an  area  1'24,(>81  square  miles,  population,  1882, 
2,223, ISl,  to  which  should  be  added  by  official  estimate,  about 


634 


HISTOET   OP  THE  WOELD.  PAET  m. 


50,000  Indians.  It  is  a  moimtainous  country  subject  to  fre- 
quent eurtlKiuakes.  It  has  almost  every  variety  of  climate, 
its  long  narrow  territory  extending  from  the  hot  deserts  near 
the  equator  to  the  cold  and  wet  region  within  twelve  degrees 
of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  One-quarter  of  the  country  is  near 
the  level  of  the  sea,  while  the  great  Andes  range  of  moun- 
tains rise  far  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  their  mean 
elevation  being  11,830  feet,  and  the  highest  peak  (Alconcagua) 
22,-127  feet.  By  the  constitution  of  1883  the  Legislative 
poiv^er  is  in  a  National  Congress  composed  of  37  members, 
elected  for  six  years,  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  109  mem- 
bers, for  three  years.  Suffrage  is  universal  to  citizens  able  to 
read  and  write  and  paying  a  small  annual  tax. 

The  executive  power  resides  in  a  President  elected  for  five 
years,  a  council  of  State,  and  five  cabinet  ministers,  having 
salaries  of  $6,000  each. 

Education  is  largely  aided  by  government,  which  supports 
810  schools  through  the  country,  besides  lyceums  and  the 
University  of  Chili,  an  invaluable  government  institution, 
with  700  students,  37  jarofessors,  and  free  instruction. 

The  Koman  Catholic  religion  is  recognized  by  the  constitu- 
tions, but  the  public  profession  of  other  forms  is  tolerated. 

Central  America. 

This  republic  including  the  states  of  Guatemela,  Honduras^ 
San  Salvador,  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Eica,  after  forming  a 
kind  of  union  since  their  separation  from  Mexico,  agreed  in 
181:7  to  bind  themselves  by  a  more  efiicient  compact.  The 
necessity  of  such  a  union  of  forces  was  demonstrated  by  the 
ease  with  which  Walker  and  others  overran  and  spoliated 
portions  of  their  territory.  In  1863,  Guatamela  and  Nicara- 
gua went  to  war  with  San  Salvador  and  Honduras.  The  re- 
sult of  this  war  was  the  elevation  of  Carera,  who  ruled  over 
all  for  some  time.  After  various  emutes  in  San  Salvador, 
Zaldivar  became  President  in  1876.  After  premonitory  con- 
vulsions from  the  5th  to  the  19th  of  March,  an  awful  earth- 
quake shook  the  capital  into  almost  complete  ruin.  About 
50  persons  perished.  The  most  noted  event  in  the  later  his- 
tory of  this  country,  was  the  fact  that  commandant  Gonzales 
flogged  almost  to  death  the  British  Consul  Majee.  He  was 
imprisoned  for  five  years  and  made  to  pay  Majee  $50,000.  A 
plot  to  kill  the  President  of  Guatamela  and  his  ministry  was 
detected  in  1877,  and  the  conspirators  were  executed.  The 
town  of  Omoa  in  Si^anish  Honduras  was  bombarded  by  the 
British  and  redress  obtained  for  injuries  to  British  subjects, 
in  1873.  In  Nicaragua  its  present  constitution  was  formed  in 
1858.  In  1858  Nicaragua  appealed  to  the  great  powers  of 
Europe  for  protection  against  invasions.      Several  companies 


CHAP.  Xn.  THE  NEW  WOBLD  FBOM  1849  TO  1885.  6^^ 

have  been  formed  to  build  railroads  and  excavate  canals 
across  this  isthmus — the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  approach- 
ing each  other  very  nearly  at  this  point.  ZaTala  was  elected 
President  in  1879. 

Nicaragua,  in  virtue  of  its  position  at  a  place  where  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  approach  ■within  less  than  a  degree 
of  each  other,  has  long  occujjied  the  attention  of  geographers 
and  statesmen.  Its  population  has  never  exceeded  300,000, 
and  its  productions  have  been  of  no  great  value,  although  the 
country  is  fertile  and  it  naturally  produces  many  articles  of 
commercial  value.  Full  fortj'  years  ago  Louis  Napoleon 
(afterwards  Emperor),  wrote  and  published  a  verj'  able  paper 
proposing  a  canal  to  connect  the  two  oceans  at  this  point. 
The  government  at  Nicaragua  tried  to  enlist  foreign  powers 
to  aid  in  its  construction,  but  without  success.  California 
becoming  a  portion  of  the  United  States,  made  this  isthmus 
a  place  of  vast  importance  to  the  Americans,  and  a  survey 
was  made  in  1851,  which  showed  there  were  no  great  difficul- 
ties to  be  overcome  in  connecting  the  two  oceans,  as  lakes 
and  rivers  would  readily  lend  their  waters  to  the  facilitation 
of  the  scheme.  Biat,  doubtless,  partly  owing  to  the  civil  war, 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  overland  routes  in  a  degree 
lessened  the  absolute  necessity  for  it,  the  affair  never  got  any 
further  than  partial  explorations  and  the  multiplication  of 
plans  and  maps.  In  1884,  however,  universal  attention  has 
been  called  to  the  matter  by  President  Arthur  of  the  United 
States  urging  upon  Congress  the  advisability  of  at  once  tak- 
ing measures  to  make  the  Nicaraguan  Canal  a  reaUty.  With 
the  energj',  and  intelligence,  and  wealth  of  the  American 
people  once  engaged,  it  \vi\\  not  be  many  years  before  the 
grand  scheme  will  be  completed. 

Mexico. 

After  Gen.  Scott  has  taken  the  City  of  Mexico,  a  peace  was 
ratified  in  1848.  During  the  years  till  1858  six  Presidents 
filled  the  Presidential  office  for  brief  periods,  when  Juarez 
became  President.  Again  there  was  a  rapid  succession  of 
Presidents  until  ISfil,  when  Juarez  once  more  became  niler. 
In  that  year  the  British,  Spanish  and  French  Governments 
broke  off  all  diplomatic  negotiation  with  Mexico,  and  engaged 
to  combine  in  hostile  action  against  her.  The  Mexican  (Con- 
gress dissolved  after  conferring  dictatorial  powers  on  the  presi- 
dent. At  the  end  of  the  year  1801,  Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to 
the  Spanish,  and  the  troops  took  possession.  An  united 
military  expedition  of  French  and  English  troops  anchored 
before  Vera  Cruz.  The  Mexicans  determined  to  resist,  in- 
vested the  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  which  is  really  the  only  safe 
port  for  large  shii^s  on  any    part  of  the  Mexican  Atlantic 


636  HISTOEY   OF  THE  WOBLD.  PAST  m. 

coast.  Miramon  arrived,  but  the  British  admiral  ordered  him 
to  return  to  Spain.  The  British  and  Spanish  authorities  de- 
cUncd  interfering  in  Mexican  affairs  for  the  purjiose  of  aiding 
Louis  Naiioleon's  scheme  for  placing  Archduke  Maximilion  of 
Austria  at  the  head  of  a  Mexican  empire.  After  much  nego- 
tiation the  French  invaded  Mexico,  under  Bazaine,  and  after 
severe  fighting  reached  the  capitol.  A  portion  of  the  nota- 
bles offered  the  crown  to  Maximillian  of  Austria.  He  ac- 
cepted it  and  came  to  Mexico  Mdth  his  wife.  They  were  wel- 
comed as  Emperor  and  Empress  by  a  part  of  the  people. 
Juarez  and  others  kept  up,  however,-  an  armed  opposition. 
The  Empress  Charlotte,  left  for  France,  (1866).  The  French 
forces  retired  in  1867.  Then  commenced  a  furious  struggle 
for  supremacy  between  the  factions  led  by  Diaz,  Ortega,  and 
Juarez,  and  conflicts  often  purposeless  took  place  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  Queretaro,  after  some  severe  fighting, 
was  ultimately  taken  by  treachery,  and  Mendez  was  shot,  the 
Emperor  Maximihan  and  General  Miramore  and  Mejia  were 
taken  prisoners,  and  after  brief  trials,  condemned  to  be  shot. 
The  sentences  were  carried  out  on  the  9  th  of  June,  1867. 
TheCity  of  Mexico,  after  undergoing  a  siege  of  sixty-seven  days, 
yielded  to  the  patriots,  and  the  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment superceded  the  imperial.  Vera  Cruz  soon  after  surren- 
dered to  the  Mexicans. 

Santa  Anna  (sure  to  be  at  hand  in  troublous  times),  made 
his  appearance,  but  before  he  could  muster  his  partizans,  he 
was  arrested,  and  kept  a  close  prisoner.  In  July  Juarez  en- 
tered the  City  of  Mexico,  and  at  once  convoked  the  assembly 
for  the  purpose  of  choosing  a  president.  Gen.  Marquez  and 
some  others  were  accused  of  attempting  to  organize  forces  with 
the  intention  of  overthrowing  the  government  of  Juarez,  but 
before  an  insurrection  could  take  action,  many  of  the  leaders 
were  seized,  executions  quickly  followed,  and  a  veritable  reign 
of  terror  })revailed.  Santa  Anna  was  banished  for  eight  years. 
The  body  of  the  ill-fated  Maximilian  M^as  given  up  to  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  Admiral  Tegethoff  conveyed  it  to  his  native  land. 

In  1871,  Juarez  was  re-elected,  and  continued  to  rule  until 
his  death  in  1872.  Tejado  succeeded  him,  and  comparative 
quiet  ensued.  A  railroad  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  Vera 
Cruz  was  finished  in  1873,  when  the  tariff  was  lowered.  Tejado 
retired  in  187(3,  when  Iglesias  assumed  to  be  President,  but 
was  defeated  by  Diaz,  who  became  President  in  1877.  Manuel 
Gonzalez  became  President  in  1880.  In  all  the  intervals  be- 
tween election  of  this  President  and  his  death  there  were  armed 
risings  more  or  less  sangiiinarj^  In  1S81,  a  train  on  the  MoreloB 
railroad  wms  thrown  into  a  river,  and  about  two  hundred  per- 
sons were  killed. 

Mexico  has  of  late  sho-mi  a  disposition  to  take  her  proper 


CHAP.  Xn.  THE   NEW  WORLD   FROM   18-49  TO  1885.  6^7^ 

place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Negotiations  arc  pro- 
ceeding having  for  ol)ject  an  arrangement  with  her  foreign 
creditors,  to  consolidate  her  floating  debts,  and  to  meet  past 
interest.  A  direct  railroad  has  been  opened  np  with  the  United 
States,  and  many  manufacturing  estabhshments  have  been  be- 
gun, and  a  greater  niimber  jjrojected.  Capital  is  being  invest- 
ed, and  a  hberal  treaty  for  interchange  of  productions  and  na- 
tive staples  has  been  negotiated  with  the  United  States.  The 
border  region  between  the  two  countries  has  become  compara- 
tively tranquil,  as  the  aiithorities  on  either  side,  nsQ  their 
influence  to  repress  and  punish  crime. 


United  States  of  America. 

President  Fillmore  signed  the  fugitive  slave  law,  and  issued  a 
proclamation  against  any  hostile  expedition  to  Cuba.  In  1851, 
the  eminent  statesman  and  orator  Henry  Clay  died,  in  the  same 
year  the  greatest  American  novelist,  J.  F.  Cooper  also  died. 
In  the  same  year  the  Con  gressional  library  was  burnt.  Kos- 
suth was  kindly  welcomed  at  Washington. 

In  1852  ajipeared  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  and  created  a  sensa- 
tion.     Daniel  Webster  died  this  year,  shortly  after  MTiting  his 
great  note  on  the  fishery  question  with  England.    One  of  the 
most  important  events  that  happened  in  1850  was  the  admission 
of  California  as  a  State.      There  has  been  fierce  controversies 
whether  she  shoi;ld  be  admitted  with  slavery,  but  the  result 
was  that  she  entered  as  a  free  State.     Koszta  was  released  from 
the  Aiistrians,  at  Smyrna,  William  Walker  sailing  from  differ- 
ent United  States  ports  greatly  harassed  many  of  the  Central 
American  countries.     On  the  2nd  of  May,  the  Massachusetts 
Senator,  Charles  Sumner,   was  frightfully  beaten,  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  by  Preston  S.  Prooks.     This  greatly  inflamed  the  anti- 
slavery  spirit  of  the  North.     At  this  period  there  was  miich 
violent  temper  shown  by  the  extreme  partisans  of  both  North 
and  Soiith,  in  Kansas.      The  U.  S.  Government  presented  the 
llesolnte  to  Groat  Pritain.  She  had  drifted  from  the  Arctic  Seas. 
The  Drod  Scott  case  was  decided  in  Supreme   Court,    adverse 
to  his  claim  to  freedom  from  slavery.       The  Mormons  rebelled 
against  the  government,   but  were    soon  compelled  to  cease 
their  resistance.      An  imminent  war  between  the  English  and 
Anit^ricans  at  Vancouver's  Island  was  prevented  by  the  good 
sense  and  coolness  of  the  commanders  on  both  sides.       John 
Prown  made  a  raid  into  Virginia  to  rouse  the  negroes  to  rebel- 
lion, the  slaves  did  not  respmid,  and-  after  a  brave  fight,  he  was 
captured,   tried  and  executed.     When  the  terms  of  President 
Fillmore  expired,  he  was  succeeded   (1853;  by  Franklin  Pierce, 
of  New  Hampshire,  who  had  commanded  the  contingent  of  his 


^S^  HISTOEY  OF  THE  WOBtD.  p^^j  jjj 

own  State  during  the  Mexican  War.  In  1854,  a  treaty  betwP^n 
Japan  and  the  United  States  was  negotiated  Sg^reatTS 
througli  the  exertions  of  Commodore  Perry.  The  slavery  i^^nl 
was  now  becoming  the  cardinal  question  of  pohtiS  inter 'T 
The  old  whig  party,  famous  for  the  number  oTS  statesmen 
DemrSSl'SySfilfr:^^  ^^'^  disintegLSd  wht'S 

BiXn^K^re^^^^^ 
ha^inameasure  absorbed ^thelXan^^^^^^^ 

oyLshadoW  ^verytLfelS         '"*"  ^nti-slayery  movements 
Mmnesota  became  a  State  in  1857    and      in      isw  r\ 

secession  of  nSrlvaulf,^  J?  T*.'""'  """"^  ™I>idly  the 
into  „  Oonf edSalfjfw^Jrjrrs^S  1:  irafl?^^^^^^ 

in  Clfcilito" HaA  °  Th!  T'  '''  """« "I""  ^"'  Sumter 
spread  rapidly.  Battle  afSh,m  """^  "PP'M  'to  flames 
of  thousands  fmwht  and  fo^MV"  ™™,';'5.  ">  "I^i*  hundreds 
were  lavishly  squlndered  '°?.f " ''»"^»'fl  J!-     Life  and  treasure 

lit  up  with  the  Cm  of  shim  ImTt  °' "'"'"''^™'»Pl'««  "^ 
Prpt^idnnt  T  i.,«^i    '    ■        ^^PS  Dumt  by  confederate  cruisers 

American  flag  from  Si  h.^  fi  '^1*\^*  whistled  over  the 
and  75,000  voluXrHli  non  ^f'^  ^  ^'^'*' °^  *^^  P'^'^Pl^' 
fell  to  the  attack  of  tie  Gondii"?  *°  ''Tf;  ^^^P^^'«  ^«^^y 
chusetts  were  fired  upon  i^Su''  ''''^^^  *"°°P^  °f  ^^^^^^s^- 
thue  pass  ere  NorfoSwY.^i'"'''"^-  .^^^  ^^^"^^  ^e"  ^o 
eyery"^ day  battles  of  mZl  I    i^  ^""^  '^  *^^^^  b^^-^^^-      ^^ost 

nil  se'ctioJs  sou  ^of  tJe  Potoma'c'n^l^'^'^.^^^r^^^  ^«"g^*  ^^ 
favor  of  the  ConfedfrntP=      t't^'^,'1'''*®  °^*^°  resulted  in 

CongressmetSctnomf  Vn""  ^'^'l^  }^f\  *^"  Confederate 
fought  and  lost  on  Jut?!  '  iSi     ^r^^  ?ol*^\«^  ^""  R"^  ^^as 

taken,    after  very  severe    fi?S  in.  ^  ^^^^'  ^"^  O^'^^''^'^^  ^^« 
y  severe   hghting,  by  Farragut,  and  Gen, 


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CHAP.  Xn.  THE  NKW  WOELD  FROM  1849  TO   1885.  641 

Bntler  was  appointed  Governor.  On  the  8th  of  March,  the 
armored  Merrimac  steamed  out  of  Norfolk  and  destroyed  the 
frigates  Cumberland  and  Congress,  and  it  appeared  as  if 
there  was  no  possible  stop  to  her  sinking  every  ship  in  the  U. 
S.  Navy,  but  on  the  next  day  she  was  met  by  the  Monitor,  a 
nondescript  craft,  designed  by  a  great  inventor.  Captain 
Ericcson.  Ericsson's  doughty  little  vessel  as  effectually  van- 
quished her  mammoth  antagonist  as  did  the  shepherd 
David  the  giant  Goliath,  and  she  turned  and  sought  safety 
in  Norfolk.  Many  futile  attempts  were  made  by  the  Union 
armies  to  take  Richmond,  and  at  least  as  many  equally  futile 
were  made  to  capture  Washington.  Lincoln  issued  a  procla- 
mation, freeing  all  slaves  in  the  seceded  States. 

In  1862  there  were  no  less  than  thirty  battles  fought  with 
varying  results.  The  carnage  was  of  ten  frightful.  Gen.  Lee 
had  taken  command  of  the  Confederates  and  soon  matched 
himself  with  some  of  the  leading  Union  Generals.  The  year 
1HG3  opened  with  the  Emancipation  proclamation,  and  later 
on  many  of  the  most  important  Southern  strongholds  had 
fallen.  In  July,  18G3,  a  very  serious  draft  riot  took  place  in 
New  York.  In  1864,  U.  S.  Grant  ])ecame  Lieiitenant  General 
and  began  a  rapid  sequence  of  victories.  The  Kearsage  sank 
the  Alabama.  Farragut  had  taken  Mobile.  Nevada  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  State.  Grant  had  driven  in  all  the  forces  of  Lee, 
upon  Richmond,  this  city  fell  on  the  3d  of  April,  1865-  On 
the  '.)th  Lee's  entire  army  capitulated,  and  the  war  was  vir- 
tually at  an  end. 

In  1863,  the  Union  army  numbered  about  700,000  men,  the 
Confederate  not  above  35U,0U0.  Battles  took  place  in  nearly 
every  section  of  the  Confederate  States,  which,  though  stub- 
bornly contested,  led  to  no  decisive  results,  until  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg  was  fought  (Jiily  1,  2,  3),  here  Lee  received  a 
check,  which  sent  him  back  flying  into  Virginia.  Before  the 
close  of  the  year  serious  inroads  had  been  made  into  Confede- 
rate territory.  Over  50,000  negroes  had  enlisted  in  Union 
armies,  and  behaved  well.  In  1SG4,  although  the  Confede- 
rates had  won  in  several  conflicts,  j'et  in  the  main,  the  Union 
had  Vieen  by  far  the  most  successful.  Many  forts  had  lowered 
their  colors  to  the  navy.  Hood's  western  army  had  been 
scattered  by  Thomas,  and  Sherman  had  begun  his  unlialting 
march  toward  the  sea.  It  has  been  computed  that  at  least 
one  million  of  men  were  cither  killed  or  badly  wounded  in 
this  Titanic  conflict.  While  the  horrid  suspense  was  being 
lifted  from  the  hearts  of  the  great  mass  of  people  throughout 
the  Union,  a  deathly  pall  fell  over  the  land.  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, the  Joshua  of  his  era,  was  cruelly  shot  down  by  Wilkes 
r>ooth  (the  son  of  the  great  actor),  who  himself  was  done  to 
death  soon  after  by  a  Union  soldier.  Seward,  the  Secretary 
of  State,  was  murderously,  but  fortunately  not  fatally,  assault- 


642 


HISTOEY  OP  THE  WOELD.  PAET  n. 


ed  on  the  night  that  the  President  fell.  The  Vice-President, 
Andrew  Johnson,  at  once  took  the  place  of  the  Martyred  Lin- 
coln as  President.  Soon  after  both  armies  had  as  quietly 
fallen  back  into  their  former  positions  as  civilians,  as  though 
war  was  an  unheard  of  thing.  Johnson's  administration  waa 
full  of  troubles,  he  failed  to  meet  the  designs  of  the  party, 
and  was  impeached,  tried  and  barely  escajDed  conviction.  In 
18G8  a  full  pardon  was  granted  to  nearly  all.  Slavery  was 
abolished  in  18G5.  In  1866  the  annual  income  from  all 
sources  amounted  to  full  three  hundred  million  of  dollars. 

Meanwhile,  the  Great  Eastern  had  laid  the  ocean  tele- 
gi-aph  cable.  In  1867,  Alaska  was  bought  fromRussia.  The 
Fenian  Invaders  of  Canada  were  forced  to  return. 

The  States  were  soon  after  re-admitted,  though  for  a  time 
several  were  kept  under  a  partial  military  surveillance.  While 
the  civil  war  was  going  on,  the  French  Emperor  Napoleon, 
aided  a  Mexican  party  to  place  Maximilian  on  the  throne  of 
of  that  country.  When  the  United  States  war  ceased  the 
French  left  Maximilian  to  his  fate,  and  he  was  shot  (1SB7). 
In  the  midst  of  wars,  science  had  not  been  idle.  After  some 
failures,  telegraphic  cables  were  laid  between  the  old  world 
and  the  new.  In  1868,  Anson  Burlingame  effected  a  treaty 
with  China,  which  at  the  time  was  deemed  very  advantageous 
for  both  nations.  Time  has  not  verified  the  idea.  In  1868, 
General  Grant  was  elected  President,  with  Colfax  as  Vice- 
President.  The  Pacific  railroad  was  oj^ened  in  1869 
Prosperity  was  "  booming,"  on  the  nation,  gold  had  fallen  to 
110,  the  debt  was  reduced,  a  general  amnesty  had  been  pro- 
claimed, and  farming  and  manufacturing  were  flourishing. 
In  1869  the  first  through  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed.  In 
1870  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  became  law,  giving  all  the 
rights  of  citizens  to  all  without  distinction. 

Chicago  was  devasted  by  fire,  more  than  100,000  people 
were  left  without  a  roof,  and  $290,000,000  worth  of  property 
had  vanished.  In  November,  1872,  some  $70,000,000  of  pro- 
perty was  ruined  by  fire  in  Boston.  An  arbitration  conven- 
tion settled  the  "  rebel  privateer"  question  by  deciding  that 
Great  Britain  should  pay  the  United  States  $15,500,000  in 
gold.  A  proposition  was  made  to  annex  San  Domingo,  but  it 
fell  through.  The  Virginius  caught  in  the  act  of  aiding  the 
Cuban  insurgents,  was  captured,  and  carried  into  Santiago. 
Some  of  her  people  were  shot.  Gen.  Grant  interfered,  and 
settled  the  affair. 

In  1873,  Gen.  Grant  became  President  for  the  second  time, 
being  elected  over  Horace  Greeley.  The  latter  soon  after- 
wards died  insane.  The  Modoc  Indians  were  compelled  to 
surrender,  and  several  leaders  executed  at  Klamath,  Oregon. 
The  Credit  Mobilier  was  proved  to  have  bribed  several  lead- 
ing politicians  who  escaped  with  slight  punishment. 


CHAP.  Xn.  THE  NEW  ■WORLD  FROM  1849  TO  1885.  643 

A  grand  Centennial  Exhibition  in  recollection  of  the  sign- 
ing of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  took  place  in  Phila- 
delphia in  the  summer  of  1876.  It  continued  half  a  year,  and 
nearly  61,000  persons  was  the  average  daily  attendance. 

Gen.  Custer  and  his  gallant  command  were  all  slain  by  the 
Sioiix,  on  the  Big  Horn. 

In  1877,  Gen.  Eiitherford  B.  Hayes  became  President.  He 
was  the  nominee  of  the  Kepublican  Party.  The  Democrats 
had  supported  Samuel  J.  Tilden.  Both  parties  claimed  the 
victorj'.  A  joint  Electoral  Commission  adjudged  the  chair  to 
Hayes,  and  the  Democrats  yielded  a  tacit  but  sullen  acquies- 
cence. The  U.  S.  troops  being  taken  out  of  S.  Carolina  and 
Louisiana,  local  government  fell  at  once  into  the  hands  of  the 
Democrats.  An  extensive  railroad  strike,  calling  for  the  aid 
of  regular  troops  to  put  it  doAvn,  occurred  in  many  of  the 
Middle  States.  In  1877  Congress  made  silver,  equally  with 
gold,  a  legal  tender,  it  had  been  demonetized  in  1873.  Great 
Britain  was  awarded  $5,500,000  to  offset  the  Dominion  fishery 
claim.  Nebraska  became  a  State  in  18G7  and  Colorado  in  1876, 
Lee,  a  mormon,  convicted  of  contriving  the  massacre  of  a 
number  of  emigrants,  at  the  ' '  Mountain  Meadow, "  was  shot 
as  directed  by  an  impartial  jury.  A  Fenian  raid  into  Canada, 
was  promptly  suppressed  by  the  United  States  Government, 
at  Malone,  N.  Y.  An  extensive  gang,  called  the  Molly  Maguires 
was  detected,  and  some  of  the  leaders  punished.  Brigham 
Young,  who  had  attained  world-wide  notoriety,  died.  A  Board 
of  Commissioners  was  appointed  to  consider  the  Civil  Service 
subject. 

In  1878  both  the  telephone  and  the  phonograph  were  de- 
monstrated to  be  perfectly  practicable.  May  25,  an  awfully 
destructive  tornado  traversed  the  Southern  part  of  Wisconsin. 
Men,  cattle,  buddings,  even,  were  hurled  through  the  air  as 
though  they  had  been  withered  leaves.  July  8th  saw  the  finish- 
ing of  the  Sutro  Tunnel,  connecting  the  Savage  and  Comstock 
silver  mines,  it  is  one  of  the  most  stiipendous  affairs  of  its  kind 
ever  executed.  The  yellow  fever,  after  long  absence,  appeared 
in  New  Orleans,  and  destroyed  many  persons. 

Specie  payments  were  resinned  Jan.  1,  1879.  Business  confi- 
dence was  at  once  restored. 

In  1881,  James  A.  Garfield  was  elected  President,  and  Ches- 
ter A.  Arthur,  Vice-President,  of  the  United  States.  Their 
opponents  were  Gen.  Hancock  and  W.  H.  English. 

1881  will  ever  be  a  "  black  "  year  in  the  history  of  the  United 
States,  if  not  of  the  world.  President  James  A.  Garfield  was, 
on  July  2d,  maliciously  shot  twice  by  Charles  Jules  Guitcau. 
After  lingering  just  on  the  verge  of  existence  for  months,  he 
finally  expired  at  Long  Branch,  in  September. 

Guitcau  was  tried,  con\icted  and  hung  in  Washington. 


644 


aiSTORY  OF  THE  WOULD,  PAET  HI. 


As  soon  fis  possible  after  the  death  of  President  Garfield,  the 
Vice-President,  Chester  A.  Arthur,  was  sworn  in  as  his  successor 
and  very  fortunately  proved  himself  well  suited  to  fill  the 
august  position.  At  the  first  meeting  of  Congi-ess,  he  an- 
nounced in  his  message,  that  while  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
nation  were  in  a  flourishing  state,  the  most  perfect  amity  pre- 
vailed with  all  nations,  the  coining  of  additional  silver  was  de- 
precated. GreatBritain  had  been  notified  of  theUnitedStates  be- 
ing ready  to  abrogate  the  Nicaraguan  treaty.  In  December 
news  reached  Washington  of  the  loss  of  the  Jeannette  in  Sibe- 
rian seas.  Congress  thanked  Egypt  for  the  gift  of  Cleopatra's 
Needle  (obelisk). 

In  February,  1882,  a  bill  passed  Congress  extending  money 
relief  to  Mrs.  Abraham  Lincoln.  A  similar  pension  was  given  to 
Mrs.  Garfield.  The  public  debt  was  reduced  in  this  year  over 
$13,000,000.  In  March,  Gen.  Grant  was  placed  on  retired 
list.  Eoscoe  Conklin  confirmed  as  Justice  of  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court,  which  he  declined.  Great  overflow  occurred  of  the 
Mississipj^i,  85,000  persons  rendered  houseless.  President 
Arthur,  in  December,  advised  reducing  internal  taxes,  and  cus- 
tom duties.  Enormous  losses  by  floods  in  Ohio  Vallej',  mills, 
bridges,  rails,  swej)t  away.  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  suffered 
greatly. 

Among  many  disasters  at  sea  in  1883,  were  notably,  75  men 
drowned  by  loss  of  Gloucester  fishing  vessels,  and  the  loss  of 
pilot  boat  off  N.Y.  Harbor  with  all  on  board.  40th  Congress 
(1883),  was  remarkable  as  having  for  the  first  time  in  many 
years  a  Democratic  majority  77.  Mr.  Carlisle,  of  Keutiicky, 
was  elected  Speaker.  President  Arthur  in  naessage  advised  im- 
provement of  harbor  and  seacoast  defences,  regular  govern- 
ment for  Alaska,  strong  legal  measures  to  kill  polj'gamy  in 
Utah,  and  preservation  of  forests.  Treasurer  Folger  gave  re- 
ceipts of  fiscal  year  (1883),  as  $398,287,581,  expenditures 
$267,408, 137.  Amount  used  for  debt  redemption  $134, 178,- 
756.  W.  Q.  Gresham,  was  confirmed  as  Post  Master  General, 
(1884").  Centennial  of  Evacuation  of  New  York,  was  finely 
celebrated  Nov.  26,  3884.  Congress  voted  $1,000,000  to  im- 
prove navigation  of  Mississippi  river.  Congress  jaassed  a  bill 
suspending  Chinese  emigration  for  10  years.  A  tariff  com- 
mission bill  was  passed.  Gov.  Cleveland  of  New  York  State, 
in  his  message  calls  attention  that  the  State  debt  had  been 
greatly  reduced,  and  advised  reduction  of  tax  rate  (1884).  U. 
S.  Senate  instructed  American  Minister  in  Paris,  to  report 
what  legislation  is  necessary  to  meet  proposed  exclusion  of 
pork  products  from  France  and  Germany.  Mr.  Morrison  in- 
troduced tariff  bill,  proposing  reductions  of  20  p.  c.  through- 
out entire  list.  $500,000  voted  in  aid  of  sufferers  by  flood  in  the 
West.     Floods  throughout  Ohio  Valley  worst  ever  recorded, 


VlHAP.  Xn.         THE  NEW  WOKLD  FKOM   1819   TO  1885.  64^ 

vviiter  rose  in  Cincinnati  over  70  feet.  In  March  1881,  Presi- 
dent Arthur  congratulated  Congress  on  good  results  of  Civil 
Service  experiments.  Legal  Tender  Act  of  1878  affirmed 
legal  by  Supreme  , Court  U.  S.  Mexican  treaty  ratified  by 
Senate.  The  United  States  received  steamer  Alert,  from 
British  Government,  to  be  used  in  Greeley  Kelief  Expedition. 
Which  relief  proved  providential  in  time  and  manner.  The 
survivors  being  safely  returned  to  their  homes.  During  1881 
there  had  been  a  great  fall  in  the  prices  of  nearly  every  kind 
of  stocks,  railroad,  coal,  oil  and  manufacturing.  This  de- 
pression was  greatly  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  many  bankers 
and  other  fiscal  agents  had  been  faithless  to  their  trusts,  and 
very  many  innocent  holders  were  ruined.  To  add  to  this  sad 
state  of  affairs  the  great  agricultural  staples  of  the  country  had 
fallen  to  the  lowest  prices  perhaps  ever  i-ecorded.  The  agi- 
tations, excitements,  and  unsettled  state  of  the  public  mind 
usually  attendant  on  Presidential  elections  came  to  add  to 
the  already  sufficiently  unfortunate  condition  of  affairs. 
The  U.  S,  Supreme  Court  gave  judgement,  in  favor  of  the 
Lee  family,  to  the  estate  of  Arlington,  near  Washington.  A 
number  of  persons  were  arrested  for  robbing  graves  near 
Philadeljihia.  A.  C.  Nutt,  State  Cashier  of  Pennsylvania, 
was  fatally  shot  in  Uniontown,  by  N.  L.  Dukes,  membjer  of 
the  State  Legislature.  Dukes  was  afterwards  shot  to  death  by 
the  son  of  A.  C.  Nutt.  The  latter  was  tried  and  acquitted 
(1883).  Eighty  lives  lost  by  the  burning  of  the  Newhall 
House  in  Milwaukee,  The  civil  rights  act  for  the  better  pro- 
tection of  colored  people  was  declared  unconstitutional  by 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  The  pier  of  the  Inman  Steamer 
lino,  in  New  York,  burned  with  a  loss  of  $G00,000.  The  re- 
mains of  John  Howard  Payne,  aiithor  of  "Home  Sweet 
Home,"  were  brought  to  his  native  country  from  Tunis,  where 
he  had  served  as  U.  S.  Consul.  Peter  Cooper,  an  inventor, 
and  an  eminent  philanthropist,  died  in  New  York,  Ajiril  4, 
18S3.  Eighty-three  persons  were  killed  and  two  hundred 
wounded  in  the  town  of  Beauregard,  Miss.,  by  tornadoes. 
The  New  York  and  Brooklyn  Suspension  Bridge,  the  greatest 
structure  of  its  kind  ever  ei'ected,  was  formally  opened  to 
travel  on  the  21th  of  May,  1883.  On  the  3Uth,  during  a  panic, 
12  persons  were  killed,  and  20  wounded.  The  Star  Boute 
Trials,  of  persons  charged  with  defraiiding  Post  Office  De- 
partment of  large  sums  were  brought  to  an  end,  by  the 
acquittal  of  j^rincipals  accused.  Mrs.  Damon  Y'.  Kilgrove,  was 
the  first  woman  admitted  as  a  lawver  in  Pennsylvania  courts, 
June  v.),  1883.  In  1883,  W.  Q.  Gresham,  excluded  the  matter 
of  lottery  dealers  from  the  mails.  Captain  Jlatthew  Webb, 
who  had  swum  across  the  channel  from  England  to  France, 
was  drowned  trying  to  Bvnin  across  the  rajiids  in  Niagara 
river.     A  general  stiike  of  telegraph  operators  was  unsuc- 


646 


HISTOET   OP  THE  WOBLD.  PABT  lU. 


cesshil  for  the  time.  The  largest  sale  of  cotton  goods  that 
ever  probably  occurred  in  the  world  took  place  on  July  26, 
in  New  York,  on  which  occasion  $200,000,000  worth  changed 
hands.  Shaw  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  the  largest  tanners  in  United 
States  failed  with  liabilities  amounting  to  $3,500,000.  Judge 
Jere  S.  Black,  a  great  jurist  and  pleader,  died  Aug.  19.  On 
the  8th  of  Sept.  1883,  the  "golden  spike,"  was  driven  in  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 

The  Presidential  Election  in  November,  1884,  resulted  in 
the  choice  of  Grover  Cleveland,  for  President,  and  Thos.  A" 
Hendricks,for'Vice-President(Democrats),  James  G.Blaine  and 
John  A.  Logan  (Republicans),  were  the  opponents.  There 
was  a  good  deal  of  strong  feeling  shown,  biit  not  the  slightest 
violence,  and  the  result  was  quietly  acquiesced  in  by  the  de- 
feated. 

A  change  of  time  tables  on  railroads  was  made  by  general 
consent,  to  conform  to  ' '  standard  time. " 

Larger  sums  of  money  were  expended  in  early  part  of  1885 
for  federal  buildings  than  ever  before.  There  had  been  such 
an  enormous  surplus  in  the  U.  S.  Treasury  that  money  was 
granted  for  this  purpose  in  a  very  extravagant  manner.  The 
failure  of  the  great  banking  house  of  John  J.  Cisco  and  Co., 
greatly  disturbed  the  financial  eqiiilibriiim  of  New  York. 
Cisco  had  been  U.  S.  Sub.  Treasui'er,  under  Pierce,  Bucha- 
nan and  Lincoln.  One  of  the  depositors  of  the  bank  had  over 
$25,000,000  in  deposit.  The  largest  iron  manufacturing  firm 
in  the  Union  collapsed  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  owing  $2,000,000. 
Extensive  strikes  of  railroad  men,  spinners  and  miners  had 
taken  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  About  a  score  of 
inmates  of  Insane  Illinois  Infirmary  were  burned  to  death 
(1885).  The  Old  Liberty  Bell  was  transferred  from  Philadel- 
phia to  the  Great  Exposition  in  New  Orleans.  Schuyler  Col- 
fax, who  was  Vice-President  during  Grant's  first  term  died  in 
January.  The  dynamite  warfare  was  transferred  to  New 
York,  where  one.  Short,  was  alleged  to  have  stabbed  Captain 
Phelan  eleven  times,  but  not  fatally.  The  official  statement 
of  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture  places  the  production  of  corn  in 
1884  at  1,795,000,000  bushels,  and  that  of  wheat  at  nearly 
513,000,000 — the  largest  aggregates  ever  recorded.  A  small 
army  of  squatters  assembled  at  Oklahoma,  and  for  a  time  de- 
fied the  U.  S.  to  remove  them.  But  the  federal  troops  cut 
off  their  supplies,  and  they  surrendered.  Congress  passed 
resolutions  denouncing  any  person,  plotting,  aiding  or  a- 
betting  dynamite  outrages  (against  foreign  powers)' in  the 
United  States. 


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